1 Introduction Group Theory and Linguistic Processing

1 Introduction On

On choice-o?ering imperatives Maria Aloni? 1Introduction The law of propositional logic that states the deducibility of either A or B from A is not valid for imperatives(Ross’s paradox,cf.[9]).The command (or request,advice,etc.)in(1a)does not imply(1a)(unless it is taken in its alternative-presenting sense),otherwise when told the former,I would be justi?ed in burning the letter rather then posting it. (1) a.Post this letter!? b.Post this letter or burn it! Intuitively the most natural interpretation of the second imperative is as one presenting a choice between two actions.Following[2](and[6])I call these choice-o?ering imperatives.Another example of a choice-o?ering imperative is (2)with an occurence of Free Choice‘any’which,interestingly,is licensed in this context. (2)Take any card! Like(1a),this imperative should be interpreted as carrying with it a permission that explicates the fact that a choice is being o?ered. Possibility statements behave similarly(see[8]).Sentence(3b)has a read-ing under which it cannot be deduced from(3a),and‘any’is licensed in(4). (3) a.You may post this letter.? b.You may post this letter or burn it. (4)You may take any card. In[1]I presented an analysis of modal expressions which explains the phe-nomena in(3)and(4).That analysis maintains a standard treatment of‘or’as logical disjunction(contra[11])and a Kadmon&Landman style analysis of‘any’as existential quanti?er(contra[3]and[4])assuming,however,an in-dependently motivated‘Hamblin analysis’for∨and?as introducing sets of alternative propositions.Modal expressions are treated as operators over sets of propositional alternatives.In this way,since their interpretation can depend on the alternatives introduced by‘or’(∨)or‘any’(?)in their scope,we can account for the free choice e?ect which arises in sentences like(3b)or(4).In this article I would like to extend this analysis to imperatives.The resulting theory will allow a uni?ed account of the phenomena in(1)-(4).We will start by presenting our‘alternative’analysis for inde?nites and disjunction. ?ILLC-Department of Philosophy,University of Amsterdam,NL,e-mail:M.D.Aloni@uva.nl

1.introduction

Introdution

Mike Jian

INTRODUCTION ?Section A: ?Comprises 8 two mark and 4 one mark multiple choice questions. ?Section B: ?Four 10 mark questions. ?Two 20 mark questions.

INTRODUCTION The examination is a three hour paper with 15 minutes reading and planning time. All questions are compulsory. Some questions will adopt a scenario/case study approach. All those questions will require some form of written response although questions on planning or review may require the calculation and interpretation of some basic ratios.

1.Which TWO of the following should be included in an audit engagement letter? ①Objective and scope of the audit ②Results of previous audits ③Management’s responsibilities ④Need to maintain professional scepticism A.① and ② B.① and ③ C.② and ④ D.③ and ④ (2 marks)

听说法案例

A Case of Audio-lingual Teaching Approach ?Woman: Good morning. ?Salesman: Good morning, Madam, would you like to have the cleanest house in town? ?Woman: Of course, I would. ?Salesman: Then，Madam，you need the amazing Hover vacuum cleaner. ?Woman: No, I don’t. ?Salesman: What? Why not? ?Woman: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. ?Salesman: Ur… Step1 Greetings Step 2 Teaching the conversation Drawing/Showing a picture, teacher briefly explains and act out the text, and at the same time asks students to watch and listen carefully, trying to understand what he will act. Teacher will demonstrate the text to the students. Salesman rings the door. Woman: Good morning.

Salesman: Good morning, Madam, would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Woman: Of course, I would. Salesman: Then，Madam，you need the amazing Hover vacuum cleaner. Woman: No, I don’t. Salesman: Why? Why not? Woman: Because my husband does the cleaning in our house. Salesman: Ur… T: Okay, listen again and I will do another time. Teacher repeats the acting. T: Now, we are going to learn this dialogue together, and I am going to help you how to say the whole dialogue. Now repeat the first line of the woman. Good morning! Ss: Good morning! T: Good morning, would you like to have the cleanest house in town? Ss: … T: House in town. Ss: …

交际教学法

交际教学法Communicative Language Teaching 一、引言 交际教学法产生于二十世纪七十年代,现在已成为国内外众多学者研究的重点之一。总体来说,交际教学法的发展有效的弥补了翻译法和认知法等教学方法只重语法规则而忽略语言使用的缺陷,极大了促进了英语语言教学的发展。但是交际教学法在实施的过程当中还有许多问题应该注意。交际教学法的特点为：坚持以学生为中心开展教学激发学生的学习兴趣；把握课堂教学的灵活性和趣味性；开展丰富多彩的课堂语言交际活动；进行语境化教学 二、交际教学法的产生与发展历程 交际教学法(Communicative Language Teaching)产生于二十世纪六七十年代。1957年Chomsky认为语言结构理论已经难以解释语言的基本特点,他提出了语言能力(Linguistic Competence)和语言行为(Linguistic Performance)两个概念。而Hymes (1972)认为,语言不仅包含语言知识(language knowledge),也应该包含语言应用能力(language use ability),因此他在Chomsky对语言能力和语言行为划分地基础之上提出了交际能力(Communicative Competence)。Hymes认为,一个人语言掌握的好坏,不仅在于语法规则的正确,也在于能在特定的语境中恰如其分的运用语言。这就扩大了语言和语言使用能力的内涵意义,涉及到了语言使用者语言之外的知识(陈坚林,2000)。 Halliday对Hymes提出的交际能力做了有益的补充,他为,语言是为交际服务的工具,教学不仅要教会学生正确的语法规则,更要培训学生如何使用语言达到交际的目的。在此基础之上,以学生为中心,分析学生的交际需求和学习动机的教学实践和科研得以进一步发展,而实践和科研的成果又进一步促进了交际教学法理论的丰富和完善。 对交际教学法做出突出贡献的还有Widdowson、Richard和Schmidt。Widdowson (1978)年出版的《语言的交际教学》(Teaching Language as Communication)为交际教学法的迅速发展奠定了坚实的基础;Richards 和Schmidt联合众多学者编纂的《语言与交际》(Language and Communication)从不同角度探讨了交际活动以及相关的问题。 此外,1994年H. Douglas Brown编写的《按交际法原则教学》(Teaching By Principles: An Interactive Approach To Language Pedagogy)从课堂实践的基础,教学环境,课堂技巧的设计与应用及课堂实例四个方面对交际教学进行阐述,提倡以学生为中心和用目标语进行交际。此著作理论联系实际,是交际教学法研究的精华之一。 在国内,胡文仲(1982),秦小孟(1979),李筱菊(1985,1988),吕万英(1996),李予军(2001),张素娣(2002)等对交际教学法的兴起,特点,优势和有待解决的问题,课堂实践及交际教学法大纲设计等进行了初步探讨,并取得了一系列成果。 三、交际教学法的特点 (一)交际法的目的是培养学生用目的语进行交际的能力。而这种交际的能力又包含四个方面(Michael Canale ,1980):语言能力(grammatical competence),社会语言能力(sociolinguistic competence),话语能力(discourse competence)和应付能力(communicative strategic competence)。语言能力是指掌握发音,词素,句法等的能力;社会语言能力是指语言使用和话

外文翻译关于Linux的介绍(Introduction to Linux)

毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学 专 指导教师： 2014 年 6 月

Introduction to Linux 1.1 History 1.1.1 UNIX In order to understand the popularity of Linux, we need to travel back in time, ab out 30 years ago... Imagine computers as big as houses, even stadiums. While the sizes of those com puters posed substantial problems, there was one thing that made this even worse: eve ry computer had a different operating system. Software was always customized to ser ve a specific purpose, and software for one given system didn't run on another system. Being able to work with one system didn't automatically mean that you could work w ith another. It was difficult, both for the users and the system administrators. Computers were extremely expensive then, and sacrifices had to be made even after th e original purchase just to get the users to understand how they worked. The total cost of IT was enormous. Technologically the world was not quite that advanced, so they had to live with t he size for another decade. In 1969, a team of developers in the Bell Labs laboratories started working on a solution for the software problem, to address these compatibility issues. They developed a new operating system, which was simple and elegant written in the C programming language instead of in assembly code able to recycle code. The Bell Labs developers named their project "UNIX." The code recycling features were very important. Until then, all commercially av ailable computer systems were written in a code specifically developed for one system . UNIX on the other hand needed only a small piece of that special code, which is now commonly named the kernel. This kernel is the only piece of code that needs to be ad apted for every specific system and forms the base of the UNIX system. The operating system and all other functions were built around this kernel and written in a higher pr ogramming language, C. This language was especially developed for creating the UNI

交际教学法

ERIC Identifier: ED357642 Publication Date: 1993-06-00 Author: Galloway, Ann Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC. Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction and Sample Activities. ERIC Digest. This digest will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language. Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in other teaching approaches. Examples of exercises that can be used with a communicative approach are described, and sources of appropriate materials are provided. WHERE DOES COMMUNICA TIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING COME FROM? Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular. In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching. WHA T IS COMMUNICA TIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING? Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics. Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining

自我介绍(self-introduction)

自我介绍(self-introduction) ??? 1. Good morning. I am glad to be here for this interview. First let me introduce myself. My name is ***, 24. I come from ******,the capital of *******Province. I graduated from the ******* department of *****University in July ,2001.In the past two years I have been preparing for the postgraduate examination while I have been teaching *****in NO.****middle School and I was a head-teacher of a class in junior grade two. Now all my hard work has got a result since I have a chance to be interview by you . I am open-minded ,quick in thought and very fond of history.In my spare time,I have broad interests like many other youngsters.I like reading books, especially those about *******.Frequently I exchange with other people by making comments in the forum on line.

交际教学法初探

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外语不仅仅是为了掌握结构形式，重要的是为了培养能力，这包含了两个既存在联系而又不同的观点。前者来自乔姆斯奎的语言能力说，后者来自海姆斯的理论，他认为语言学的对象应该是语言能力，语法就是对语言能力的描写。这种理论使语言学习对象由形式转向了内容。海姆斯在1971年发表的《论交际能力》被认为是交际法的直接现象依据，补充了乔氏的语言能力说的不足，并认为交际能力包括四个社会文化因素： 1、语法的正确性； 2、语言的可行性，指有些话语语法虽然正确，但人们却不那样说。如walk on foot； 3、语言的得体性，这是指语言应适合于对话双方的社会地位、身份、性别、心理等因素； 4、语言的可接受性，指语言适合于环境。 以相互作用为原则和交际任务为目标的教学能够极大的激活语言习得机制，它要求课堂教学提供出让学生开口说话及相互交流和探讨思想的环境，要以学生为中心，使学生主动参与及师生通力合作。综上所述，在外语教学中，只传授系统语法知识是不够的，应将交际能力定为主要目标之一。 二、交际式教学法与结构传统式教学法比较 在教学顺序上，结构教学法是：介绍新项目→操练→结

加拿大介绍Canada Introduction

Canada Introduction Canada has a population just less than 30 million people in a country twice the area of the United States. The heritage of Canada was French and English; however, significant immigration from Asia and Europe's non-French and English countries has broadened Canada's cultural richness. This cultural diversity is considered a national asset, and the Constitution Act prohibits discrimination against individual citizens on the basis of race, color, religion, or sex. The great majority of Canadians are Christian. Although the predominant language in Canada is English, there are at least three varieties of French that are recognized: Quebecois in Quebec, Franco-Manitoban throughout Manitoba and particularly in the St. Boniface area of Winnipeg, and Acadian. The Italian language is a strong third due to a great influx of Italian immigrants following W.W.II. Canada's three major cities are distinctively, even fiercely different from one another even though each is a commercially thriving metropolitan center. Montreal, established in the 17th century and the largest French city outside France, has a strong influence of French architecture and culture. It is a financial and manufacturing center

浅谈交际教学法及交际能力

浅 谈 交 际 教 学 法 及交际能力 周秀兰1, 熊晓路2① 交际教学法是七十年代以来语言教学观发生 革命性变化的具体体现, 它在外语教学中发挥了巨大的作用 交际法教学的基本原则是强调外语学习的目的 是培养学生运用外语迚行交际的能力。兲于人们只有在反复实践运用外语迚行交际的过程中才能真正掌握外语的观点, 现在已被国内外语言家们肯定。非交际的外语教学方式和这个原则背道而驰。它不是把外语作为交际工具来迚行教学, 不是通过实践去达到掌握这个工具, 它不懂得外语知识必须为实践, 为掌握外语, 为培养学生的外语技能和技巧服务。交际法的使用培养了学生的交际能力, 但它注 重了语言的使用, 使得学生对语言知识的理解不够, 不能灵活运用语言。其次, 在班级人数较多的情况下, 使用交际法给老师带来一定的困难, 有时给有些学生有机可乘, 不能充分调动全班的积极性。另外, 测试时需涉及口语和听力, 尤其是口语测试主观性 强, 测试和阅卷的信度和效度低, 不宜使用于我国大

觃模的群体测试。尽管交际法有这些缺点, 但同其优点相比, 毕竟瑕不掩瑜。 教学要求、教学内容, 做到灵活运用。 交际能力是由美国社会、语言学家海姆斯提出 来的。海姆斯认为交际能力包括以下几个方面的参 数: 合语法性, 某种说法是否在形式上可能; 适合性, 某种说法是否可行; 得体性, 某种说法是否得体; 4. 实际操作性, 某种说法是否实际出现了。换句话说, 海姆斯理解的一个人的交际能力包括语法、主理、社 会文化和概率等方面的判断能力。也就是说, 一个人 不但知道什么是语法正确的句子, 而且还知道什么 是合适的句子, 即他知道什么时候该说, 什么时候不 该说, 在什么时候、什么地方用什么方式对谁讲什么 话。因此可以说交际能力是一个复杂的概念, 它涉及 到语言、修辞、社会、文化、心理等诸多方面的因素。 它是指一个人运用语言手段和副语言手段来达到某 一特定交际目的的能力, 包括理解和表达两个方面。 这样就要求我们要培养学生听、说、读、写等方面的 综合能力。外语交际能力包括准确接受信息和収出 信息的能力。它由两个方面组成: 语言知识和交际知 识. 语言知识的积累可以提高交际能力, 交际的实践 可以巩固学到的语言知识, 这样又可以反过来促迚 交际能力的提高。 从心理语言学观点分析, 交际是双方信息传递 的过程, 交际的这一过程是一个复杂的心理语言过 程。它需要具备听与说的基本知识, 有兲的词汇、语 音、语调、语法等语言知识和文化背景知识、感知、推 理、判断、分析、综合等语言技能, 语用知识及语言功 能知识的综合使用. 语言是人类最重要的交际工具。语言是社会交 际需要和实践的产物。语言在交际中才有生命。人 们在使用语言过程中才真正学会使用语言, 语言在 使用中变化収展, 获得新的生命。人们在社会中生 活, 离不开相互交往。语言交往是人们最司空见惯、 最重要的交往方式。然而很多人都同意这样一个观 点即非语言交往往往伴随语言交往, 辅助表达交际 意义, 特别是讲话人的情感与态度, 有时亦单独表 意。 语言能力和交际能力概念不同。语言能力概念 反映的语言观是语言为一个自主的形式系统。其在 外语教学上的局限性已为人所共识。交际能力通过 交际法反映出的语言观即语言是交际的工具。一个

交际法

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交际语言教学法 内容提要：本文介绍了交际语言教学法这一以培养学习者的语言运用和交际能力为主要目标的语言教学方法，介绍了其发展，主要内容和特点并结合实例就此方法在外语教学中的运用进行了分析。 关键词：交际语言教学法外语教学语言交际能力随着我国的社会、经济、文化等活动进一步融入到国际化和全球化的体系之中，我国对于外语人才的语言交际能力的要求也逐渐提高。作为外语教学工作者，能够在教学工作中有效地使用交际语言教学法对于组织教学过程，使学生更好地达到学以致用的目的具有重要意义。本文就交际语言教学的起源，特点以及如何在外语教学中应用此方法进行了逐一探讨。 交际语言教学（Communicative Language Teaching）产生于七十年代初期，社会语言学家海默斯在1971年发表的《论交际能力》（On Communicative Competence）被认为是交际法的直接理论根据。其创始人之一是英国语言学家 D. A. Wilkins，1976年维尔金斯出版了《意念教学大纲》（Notional Syllabuses）一书，把交际法置于更可靠的基础之上。交际语言教学法经过近30年的发展已逐渐成为一种为世界语言教学界所普遍认同的教学思想和方向。它的理论主要来自社会语言学、心理语言学，并受到话语分析、语言哲学、人类学、社会学等多门学科的影响。交际法认为语言是交际的工具，学会一种语言不仅要掌握其语言形式和使用规则，还要学会具体运用，也就是说

要知道在什么场合运用。其核心是教语言应当教学生怎样使用语言，用语言达到交际的目的，而不是把教会学生一套语法规则和零碎的词语用法作为语言教学的最终目标。所以交际教学法强调的是要教授语言功能方面的知识，学生如果没有掌握这门语言的交际本领，没有具备这门语言交际方面的能力，就不能说学会了这一门外语。交际教学法强调要把学生真正置于尽可能真实的交际场景中，并且要由学生亲历一种活的交际活动的过程。根据交际教学法的原则，教师和学生都要注重运用所学外语进行真实的课堂以及课外交际活动，在尽量模拟现实的交际情景中来进行教学和学习，才能有利于培养学生的语言交际能力。本文以下部分就交际教学法的原则谈谈运用此方法进行教学的一些具体方式和做法。 一．尽可能在课堂教学中运用真实的交际场景 我们传统的外语教学概念中多注重语法形式是否完善，在交际教学法中更注重的是交流者是否能正确流利的表意，即是否“get the ideas across”。而这种侧重面对于培养我国所急需的实用型外语人才具有重要意义。因此，在教学中要尽可能多地运用真实场景来训练学生的实际语言应用及应变能力。而对于真实场景的选用则要有一定的取舍，我们应尽量选择符合实际需要或符合中国大学生在今后工作中实际应用的语言情景。例如作为旅游院校的学生，今后工作中在很大程度上要接触或进入旅游行业，那么选用和旅游相关的场景则比较合适。笔者在教授英语专业成人本科三年级口语课时就选用了在带外国旅游团过程中可能发生的真实场景让学生进行角色扮演，进行

小学英语教学论文-外语教学中“听说法”与“交际法”的比较及启示_通用版

小学英语教学论文-外语教学中“听说法”与“交际法”的比较及启示_通用版 〝交际法〞与〝听说法〞到底孰优孰劣？在此，我想对〝交际法〞与〝听说法〞各自产生的理论根源及特点作一番比较，以探索外语教学的规律。 【一】理论依据 首先，让我们比较一下这两种教学法的理论依据——各自的心理学背景和语言学基础。 在语言学方面，听说法的理论基础是四十年代产生的结构语言学〔stru ctural linguistics〕，在美国又称其为描写语言学〔descriptive linguistics〕，代表人物有Leonard Bloomfield，Edward Sapir，Charles Hockett和Charl es Fries等人。结构语言学家认为，语言学的任务就是严格地按照科学原那么去观察和描写人类的语言，并弄清楚这些语言在结构上的特征。根据结构主义理论，语言可以分解成假设干较小的：单位〔如句子、短语、单词、词素和音素〕，这些较小的语言单位都能用科学的方法加以描写；反过来，这些较小的语言单位又可以被还原成分解前的整体。 交际法的语言学理论基础是本世纪六十年代创立的生成转换语言学〔g enerative transformation〕，代表人物是Noam Chomsky。他认为，一个好的语言学理论不仅要能够描写语言，而且还要能够解释语言。瑞士著名语言学家Ferdinand de Saussure早在八十多年前〔1916年〕就谈到过〝parol e〞〔〝语言运用〞，相当于Chomsky所说的〝performance〞〕和〝langu e〞〔〝语言能力〞，相当于Chomsky所说的〝competence〞〕的区别。但是，描写语言学只注重观察和分析〝parole〞，而忽略了〝langue〞。生成转换语言学家们打破了描写语言学的这种偏见，研究了语言表层结构〔surf ace structure〕与深层结构〔deep structure〕的关系。他们指出，正是这种〝隐藏的〞深层结构，生成了可以观察得到的表层语言行为。 在心理学方面，听说法属于行为主义〔behaviorism〕学派。行为主义心理学认为，语言学习同人类其它学习活动一样，是行为或习惯的养成，而训练行为或培养习惯，人与动物是没有区别的。因此，行为主义心理学