词汇学笔记myself

词汇学笔记myself
词汇学笔记myself

Chapter 1 Basic concepts of words and vocabulary The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.

The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics (文体论)and lexicography(词典学)

2 声音和意义Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.

A dog is called a dog not because

the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.

E.g. ―woman‖ means ‘Frau‘ in German,‘Femme‘ in French and ‘Funv ‘in Chinese. On the other hand,the same sound /rait/ can mean right,rite and write,though denoting different things,yet have the same sound.

(At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns)Sound and form(读音和形式):不统一的四个原因(1)the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other

(2)the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years (3)some of the difference were creates by the early scribes (4)the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary

Classification of English W ords:By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words实义词&functional words功能词By origin:native words&borrowed words The basic word stock(基本词汇): is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic W ord Stock(基本词汇的特征): 1)All-National character(全民性most important)2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性)4)Polysemy(多义性)5)Collocability(可搭配性)

没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话)(3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语)

(5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语)(7) Neologisms(新词语)4-1 基本词汇The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics.(5特点)

1 全民性All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions

6-1 本族语词Native words- native words have two other features:1-Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific. Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style.2-Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. 6-2 外来语词borrowed words or loan words or borrowings

6-2-1 同化词denizens6-2-2 非同化词Aliens 6-2-3 译借词translation-loans6-2-4 借义词Semantic-loans.

功能词和实义词区别. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.

Functional words are in a small number.

b. Content words are growing.

Functional words remain stable.

c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. .Chapter 2 The development of the English vocabulary The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)

The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages(8大印欧语群)The Eastern set:

(1)The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族):Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. (2)The Indo-Iranian Group(印度-伊朗语族):Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.

(3)The Armenian Group(亚美尼亚语族):Armenian.

(4)The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族):Albanian. The Western set:

(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族):Greek.

(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族):Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.

(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语族):Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.

(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族):

Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.

The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:

1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was high inflected language.

The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts凯尔特,the language was Celtic.

The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.

The Germanic tribes called angles盎格鲁,Saxons撒克逊and Jutes 朱特人and their language,Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English.

At the end of 6th century,the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.

The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.

In the 9th century,many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English,our daily life and speech.

特点:highly inflected language

complex endings or vowel changes (full ending)

2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections

Until 1066,although there were borrowings from Latin,the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.

By the end of the 13th century,English gradually come back into public areas.

Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.

As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.

特点:fewer inflections

leveled ending

3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.

The Renaissance,Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world‘s great literary heritage.

The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization,British

tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe,thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.

After World War II,many new words have been created to express new ideas,inventions and scientific achievements.

More words are created by means of word-formation.

thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions,and scientific achievements.

more words are created by means of word-formation.

in modern English,word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.

science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .

mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.

特点:ending are almost lost.

2 词汇的发展原因Three main sources of new words:

1the rapid development of modern science and technology(45%);

2 life-style constitute (24%);

3the influence of social and economic terms(11%).

2 发展方式Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.

2-3 借词Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, French, Greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors. 2-4 Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词)also contributes to the growth of English

vocabulary though quite insignificant. (Reviving archaic or obsolete恢复古时或已不用的)

French 30%,Latin 8%,Japanese Italian 7%,Spanish 6%,German Greek 5%,Russian Yiddish 犹太人使用的4%

Chapter 3 Word fomation ⅠMorphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.

Type of Morpheme(词素的分类) (1)Free Morphemes(自由词素): have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).(2)Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀) Affixes can be put into two groups: 1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.

2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix(形容词后缀)that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an ad jective.

Root and stem(词根和词干)The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.

Chapter 4 Word Formation Ⅱ 8种构词法affixation(30%-40%), companding(28%-30%), conversion(26%), shortening(8%-10%), blending(1%) , clipping, Acronymy,Back-formation

1 词缀法Affixation.

1-1 前缀法Prefixation 1-2 后缀法Suffixation When the suffix under discussion is added to the stem, whatever class it belongs to, the result will be a noun or an adjective.

1-2-1 Noun suffixes :1) Denominal nouns: a. Concrete -er, b. Abstract -ship.2) Deverbal nouns: a. The suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, b. Suffixes added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc.3)De-adjective nouns -ity.4) Noun and adjective suffixes -ese.

1-2-2 Adjective suffixes :1) Denominal suffixes -ed,2) Deverbal suffixes -able.

1-2-3 Adverb suffixes–ly -wise; 1-2-4 Verb suffixes–ate,-en.

1.Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法):the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem. (1)Prefixation(前缀法):It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.

1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)

2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀): un-,de-,dis- etc. unwrap(open)

3) Pejorative prefixes: mis(贬义前缀):mis-,mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)

4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀):arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight

5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀):contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear

6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀):extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)

7) Prefixes of time and order(时间和顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)

8) Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni-,mono-, bi-,di-, tri-,multi-,poly- ,semi-,etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)

9) Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀):auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation(后缀法): It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.

1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes

2 复合构词法Compounding

Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail),hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)

Formation of compounds(复合词的形式)(1)noun compounds :e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot (2)adjective compounds :e.g. acid + head = acid-head (3)verb compounds :e.g. house + keep = housekeep 2-1区别、特点Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:

1).语音特点Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases

2). 语义特点Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.

3). 语法特点Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.

2-2 构成3大类Noun compounds, adjective compounds, verb compounds

3 转类法Conversion

3-1 - Many simple nouns convened from verbs can be used with have, take, make, give etc. to form phrases to replace the verb or denote a brief action. Words like hand-out, stand-by, lay-by, teach-in, shut-down are all converted from phrasal verbs.

3-2 Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. 1Words fully converted. A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number. 2 Words partially converted. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles.

3-3 变化:1 voiceless to voiced consonant; 2 initial to end stress.

4 拼缀法Blending e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN

5 –截断法clipping.

1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)

2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)

3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)

4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)

6 –首字母拼音法Acronymy Initialisms首字母缩略词Acronyms首字母拼音词

7 逆生法Back-formation

8 –专用名词转化而来的普通名词Modern English has a large number of words which come from proper nouns. They include names of people, names of places, names of books and trade names. (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt(瓦特,电功率单位)

When proper nouns are communized,many of them have lost their original identity. They can be converted to other classes. These words can also take suffixes.

Words that are communized from proper nouns have rich culture associations and thus stylistically vivid,impressive and though-provoking.

Chapter 5 Word meaning

1 –所指Reference

2 - Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.

概念Concept, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.

3 –语义sense (not every word has reference)

4 –词义的理论Motivation 4.1 拟声理论Onomatopoeic Motivation: E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.

4.2 形态理论Morphological Motivation: 例外:black market, ect.4.3 语义理论Semantic Motivation:

E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot) 4.4 词源理论Etymological Motivation: E.g:pen-feather

5 –词义的类别Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning.

5-1 语法意义Grammatical meaning

5-2 词汇意义Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.

5-2-1 概念意义- Conceptual meaning

5-2-2 关联意义Associative meaning

5-2-2-1 内含意义Connotative meaning.5-2-2-2 文体意义Stylistic meaning.

5-2-2-3 感情意义Affective meaning5-2-2-4 搭配意义Collocative meaning.

Chapter 6 Sense relations and semantic field语义关系和语义场

A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations.

1 –多义词polysemy, When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic.

1-1 多义关系的研究方法diachronic approach and synchronic approach.

diachronic approach First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.

synchronic approach基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.

1-2 词义发展的两种模式radiation (e.g: face, neck)and concatenation. .(e.g:treacle)

1.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.

2.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.

2同型同音异义关系- Homonyms

2-1 分类:完全同型同音Perfect homonyms同形异音Homographs同音异形Homophones Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)

1)change in sound and spelling :(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)

2)borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )

3)Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)

2-2-1 读音和拼写的变化Change in sound and spelling. Some homonyms are native by origin, derived from different earlier forms in Old English. The change in sound and spelling gradually made them identical in modern English.

2-2-2 借词Borrowing. As a result of heavy borrowing from other languages, many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin or with those of other foreign origin.

2-2-3 缩略词Shortening. Many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with other words in spelling or sound.

The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes(同音同形异义词和多义词的区别):

1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.

2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源):Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.

3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of

polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.

In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.

Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色):As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.

3- 同义词Synonymy

3-2 分类- Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.

3-2-1 绝对同义词Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. It is observed that absolute synonyms are rare in natural languages and some people even hold that such synonyms are non-existent. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary.

3-2-2 相对同义词Relative synonyms also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. (e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)

3-3 来源- Sources of Synonyms:

1)Borrowing(借词):最重要的来源

2)Dialects and regional English (方言和地区英语)

3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words (单词的修饰和委婉用法):occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.

4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致):win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one‘s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.

3-4 区别The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.

3-4-1 外延上的区别Difference in denotation.Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning. Some words have a wider range of meaning than others. (rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)

(1)3-4-2 内涵上的区别Difference in connotation. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive

coloring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.

(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词:policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌:ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )

(2)3-4-3 应用上的区别Difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but

different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)

4 反义词Antonymy

Types of Antonyms:

1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点:

①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like ―very‖ to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)

2)contrary terms(对立反义词): antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.

3)relative terms(关系反义词):this type consists of relational opposites.(parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give)Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):

1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)

2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym

3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion(语义内涵)

4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool) The use of antonyms(反义词的使用)1)Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.

2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友,weal and woe哀乐) 3)To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)

5 上下义关系Hyponymy Superordinate and Subordinate(上义词和下义词):use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.

6 语义场semantic field The massive word store of a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, such as ?philosophy‘ or ? emotio ns‘, others smaller, such as ?kinship‘ or ?colour‘. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. Semantic Field(语义场) Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.

e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, le mon, etc. make up the semantic field of ?fruits‘) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.

e.g.(aunt in English, may means ―父亲的姐姐,妈妈的姐姐,父亲哥哥的妻子‖ in Chinese.(122)

Chapter 7 Changes in word meaning(4种类型、2种原因)V ocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.

类型Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer. Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. Types of Changes (词义变化的种类) 1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion) 2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小):is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ] 3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble(粗陋的)beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ] 4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory(贬损的)sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]

5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.

2 Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因) 1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素): 1) Historical reason(历史原因):Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.

2 )Class reason(阶级原因):The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.

3) Psychological reason(心理原因):the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.

2.Linguistic factors(语言内部原因):the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.

1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier

2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast 3)analogy类推:

.

Chapter 8 Meaning and context(语境,两种类型,三种作用) Two types of context(语境的种类)1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation(非语言语境):In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord ) 2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境):In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类:

1) Lexical context(词汇语境):It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)

2) Grammatical context(语法语境):It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)

The role of context(语境的作用) 1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义) 1)Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity 如何消除歧义?——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indication of referents(限定所指) 如何限定所指?——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context 3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义) 1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy

5)antonymy

6)hyponymy(上下义关系)7)relevant details 8)word structure

2 作用The Role of Context:

2-1 消除歧义Elimination of Ambiguity, Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.

2-2 限定所指Indication of Referents.

2-3 提供线索以猜测词义Provision of Clues for Inferring Word meaning: In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:

2-3-1 定义Definition. the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term. 2-3-2 解释Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words e.g.

2-3-3 举例Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term. 2-3-4 同义Synonymy. Synonyms or synonymous expressions are frequently employed by authors to explain new words, e.g.

2-3-5 反义Antonymy. Contrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words.

2-3-6 上下义Hyponymy. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue, 2-3-7 有关细节Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent, e.g.

8) Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words, e.g. Chapter 9 English idioms(2特点,5分类,3应用)Idioms(习语的定义): are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms(俗语), Catchphrases(标语),slang expressions (俚语),proverbs(谚语),etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.

Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences, which are pecliar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.Idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. Characteristics of Idioms(英语习语的特点)1.Semantic unity (语意的整体性):words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.

2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.

1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced

2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed

3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.

4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯1 特点characteristic of Idioms

1-1 语义的整体性semantic unity :English idioms:Being phrases or sentences,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity .the semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom. 1-2结构的稳定性Structural stability: 1- the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. 2- The word order cannot be inverted or changed. 3- the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to .4-many idioms are grammatically unanalyable 。

The idiomaticity of idioms is gradable : the more idiomatic the idioms, the more fixed the structure. Many of the idioms of the lower scale do allow some changes.

2 分类classification of idioms (the grammatical funtions) 2-1 idioms nominal in nature名词性习语:idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences. eg.White elephant 累赘物2-2 idioms adjective in nature形容词性习语 e.g. 1 up in the air. 2 as poor as a church mouse)2-

3 idioms verbal in nature动词性习语: phrasal verbs and verb phrases .(look into)2-

4 idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语:e.g. tooth and nail 2-

5 sentence idioms (proverbs, saying) 句式习语:all idioms of this category are complete sentences.e.g. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

3 Use of idioms(习语的使用)

3-1 文体特点tylistic features:

(1)口语性coloquialisms;e.g. hang in (three) (2)俚语slang, e.g. canser stick 烟棒

(3)文学表达法literary expressions, e.g. of note. 3-2 修辞特点rhetorical feature

1语音特点phonetic manipulation

(1)头韵法Alliteration, e.g. chop and change (2)叠韵rhyme, e.g. kith and kin

2 语法特点lexical manipulation

(1)同义词复用reiteration, e.g. scream and shout

(2)重复repetition,e.g. by and by (3)反义词叠用juxtaposition of antonyms ,e.g. here and there )3-3.修辞格方面figures of speech :Idioms are terse and vivid because of the copious images created by them.

1.明喻simile e.g. mute as a fish

2.暗喻metaphor e.g. black sleep

3.转喻metonym: this refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another

associated .e.g. in the cradle

4.借代synecdoche: sub stituting part for the whole and vice versa.e.g. earn one‘ bread

5.拟人personification e.g. failure is the mother of success

6.委婉euphemism e.g. the call of nature .sleep around

7.夸张hyperoble e.g. a world of trouble )

4 习语的变化variations of idioms Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式):

4-1 替换replacement

4-2 添加或删除addition or deletion 4-3 位置转移Position shifting e.g. day and night =night and day 4-4 缩短shortening e.g. Jack of all trades =Jack of and master of none 4-5 分解dismembering

Characteristics of Idioms: I. Long use

II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity. III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.

48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are true idioms. eg. a dog in the manger.

49. Sources of Figurative idioms:

I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person) II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble) IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.

Chapter 10 English dictionaries(4种类,3应用)Dictionary: a book which presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology(语源).

Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):

1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries(单语词典和双语词典):最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.

(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)

2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries(语文词典与百科词典)(1)Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的(2)Encyclopedic dictionary:

1)encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se(本身)but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information. 2)Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characte ristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia ()

3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典) (1)Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) (2)Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000] (3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义,很少或者几乎不举例。about 50,000 entries or fewer

4.Specialized dictionaries(专用词典)concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.

Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用)

1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary

2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary

Content of the dictionary(词典的内容)1.spelling 2.pronunciation 3.definition https://www.360docs.net/doc/4012098501.html,age 5.grammar https://www.360docs.net/doc/4012098501.html,age notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释7.etymological information词源信息8.supplementary matter补充事项

Three good general dictionaries (3本常用字典)1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》新版:

特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③language notes

2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯合作英语词典》:特征:

①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages

3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》:首版1978年。(1)has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs.(2)revised some old entries(3)keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use(4)boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items.

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