制药工程专业英语 第6单元 逐句详解
PART 2 BIOCHEMICAL PHARMACEUTICALS
生化制药
Unit 6 Isolation of Caffeine from Tea
从茶叶中分离咖啡因
In this experiment, Caffeine will be isolated from tea leaves.
在这个实验中，咖啡因会从茶叶中分离出来。
The major problem of the isolation is that caffeine does not occur alone in tea leaves, but is accompanied by other natural substances from which it must be separated.
分离过程中的主要问题就是，茶叶中不仅仅只有咖啡因，还伴随着需要被分离除去的其他天然物质。
The major component of tea leaves is cellulose，which is the major structural material of all plant cells.
茶叶中的主要成分是所有植物细胞中的主要结构材料——纤维素。
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose.
纤维素是葡萄糖的聚合物。
Since cellulose is virtually insoluble in water, it presents no problems in the isolation procedure.
然而纤维素实际上是不溶于水的，所以在隔离的程序上不用考虑去除纤维素。
Caffeine, on the other hand, is water soluble and is one of the major substances extract ed into the solution called "tea”.
另一方面，咖啡因是水溶性的，也是萃取到溶液（也就是茶）里的主要物质之一。
Caffeine comprise s as much as 5 percent by weight of the leaf material in tea plants.
咖啡因包含了茶树叶片材料总重的5%之多。
Tannins also dissolve in the hot water used to extract tea leaves.
丹宁（鞣酸）也溶解于用于萃取茶叶的热水中。
The term tannin does not refer to a single homogeneous compound, or even to substances which have similar chemical structure.
丹宁一词不是指单个均一的化合物，也不是具有相似化学结构的物质。
It refers to a class of compounds which have certain properties in common.
它是指某些具有共同属性的化合物的种类。
Tannins are phenolic compounds having molecular weights between 500 and 3000.
丹宁是一类分子质量在500到3000的含酚的化合物。
They are widely used to "tan” leather.
它们被广泛用于鞣革。
They precipitate alkaloids and proteins from aqueous solutions.
它们从水溶液中沉淀出生物碱和蛋白质
Tannins are usually divided into two classes: those which can be hydrolyzed and those which cannot.
丹宁通常被分为两类：可水解和不可水解。
Tannins of the first type which are found in tea generally yield glucose and gallic acid when
they are hydrolyzed.
在茶中，第一类丹宁水解后通常产生葡萄糖和五倍子酸。
These tannins are esters of gallic acid and glucose.
这些丹宁是五倍子酸和葡萄糖的酯类。
They represent structures in which some of the hydroxyl groups in glucose have been esterified by digalloyl groups.
它们代表着葡萄糖中的一些羟基被酯化为鞣酰基的结构。
The non-hydrolyzable tannins found in tea are condensation polymers of catechin.
茶中的不可水解的丹宁是儿茶酚的缩合聚合物。
These polymers are not uniform in structure, but catechin molecules are usually linked together at ring positions 4 and 8.
这些聚合物在结构上是不一致的，但儿茶酚分子通常在环的4号和8号位是相连的。
When tannins are extracted into hot water, the hydrolyzable ones are partially hydrolyzed, meaning that free gallic acid is also found in tea.
当丹宁被萃取到热水中，可水解的部分水解掉了，意味着茶中还有多余的五倍子酸。
The tannins, by virtue of their phenolic groups, and gallic acid by virtue of its carboxyl groups, are both acidic.
由于丹宁中含有酚，五倍子酸中含有羧基，所以它们都是酸性的。
If calcium carbonate, a base, is added to tea water, the calcium salts of these acids are formed.
如果茶水中加入碳酸钙，这些酸的钙盐就会形成。
Caffeine can be extracted from the basic tea solution with chloroform, but the calcium salts of gallic acid and the tannins are not chloroform soluble and remain behind in the aqueous solution.
咖啡因可以被茶的氯仿溶液萃取，但五倍子酸和丹宁的钙盐是不溶于氯仿的，所以它们会留在水溶液中。
The brown color of a tea solution is due to flavonoid pigments and chlorophylls, as well as their respective oxidation products.
茶水呈现出褐色是由于黄酮类色素和叶绿素，以及它们各自的氧化物。
Although chlorophylls are somewhat chloroform soluble, most of the other substances in tea are not.
虽然叶绿素是微溶于氯仿的，但茶叶中的其他大多数物质不是如此。
Thus, the chloroform extraction of the basic tea solution removes nearly pure caffeine.
因此，碱性茶水的氯仿提取去除了几乎无杂质的咖啡因。
The chloroform is easily removed by distillation (by 61'C) to leave the crude caffeine.
氯仿在61℃蒸馏中易被去除，从而分离出咖啡因的粗产物。
The caffeine may be purified by recrystallization or by sublimation.
咖啡因可以通过结晶或升华来纯化。
In a second part of this experiment, Caffeine will be convert ed to a derivative.
本次实验的第二个部分，咖啡因会被转化为衍生物。
A derivative of a compound is a second compound, of known melting point, formed from the original compound by a simple chemical reaction.
一个化合物的衍生物是一个已知熔点的第二化合物，是由原来的化合物通过简单化学反应生成的。
In trying to make a positive identification of an organic compound, it is often customary to convert it into a derivative.
为了试图鉴定原始化合物，我们通常习惯将它转化成衍生物。
If the first compound, Caffeine in this case, and its derivative both have melting points which match those reported in the chemical literature (e. g., a handbook), it is assumed that there is no coincidence and that the identity of the first compound, Caffeine, has been definitely established.
如果第一化合物（在这也就是指咖啡因）以及它的衍生物的熔点都与化学文献上所记载的相匹配，那么就可以推测第一化合物就是咖啡因无疑。
Caffeine is a base and will react with an acid to give a salt.
咖啡因是碱，可以和酸反应生成盐。
Using salicylic acid, a derivative salt of Caffeine, Caffeine salicylate, will be made in order to establish the identity of the Caffeine isolated from tea leaves.
和水杨酸反应就能生成咖啡因的一种衍生物盐，叫做水杨酸咖啡因。它可以用来鉴定茶叶中分离出的咖啡因。
Special Instructions 特别注意
Be careful when handling chloroform.
要小心处理氯仿。
It is a toxic solvent, and you should not breathe it excessively or spill it on yourself.
它是一种有毒溶剂，应防止过度吸入以及洒在身上。
When discarding spent tea leaves, do not put them in the sink because they will clog the drain.
丢弃茶叶时，不应将它们扔在水槽，因为它们会堵塞排水管。
Dispose of them in a waste container.
应该将它们扔入垃圾桶。
Procedure 程序
Place 25g of dry tea leaves, 25g of calcium carbonate powder, and 250ml of water in a 500ml three neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser for reflux.
将25克干燥茶叶、25克碳酸钙粉末和250毫升水混入一个装有回流冷凝管的500毫升三口圆底烧瓶。
Stopper the unused openings in the flask and heat the mixture under reflux for about 20 minutes.
将烧瓶中未使用的开口塞住，加热混合物，回流20分钟。
Use a Bunsen burner to heat.
用本生灯加热。
While the solution is still hot, filter it by gravity through a fluted filter using a fast filter paper such as E&D No. 617 or S&S No. 595.
用快速过滤纸如E&D No. 617 或S&S No. 595，通过凹槽过滤器，趁热过滤。
You may need to change the filter paper if it clogs.
如果堵住了就需要换一种滤纸。
Cool the filtrate (filtered liquid) to room temperature and, using a separatory funnel, extract it twice with 25ml portions of chloroform.
待滤液降至室温，用25毫升氯仿在分液漏斗中萃取两次。
Combine the two portions of chloroform in a 100ml round bottom flask.
将两次萃取的了氯仿倒入100毫升圆底烧瓶中混合。
Assemble an apparatus for simple distillation and remove the chloroform by distillation.
搭建一个简易的蒸馏装置，并通过蒸馏将氯仿去除。
Use a steam bath to heat.
用蒸汽浴来加热。
The residue in the distillation flask contains the caffeine and is purified as described below (crystallization).
蒸馏烧瓶中的残留物包括咖啡因，将以如下描述进行纯化（结晶）。
Save the chloroform that was distilled. You will use some of it in the next step.
将蒸馏出的氯仿保留下来，用于下面的步骤。
The remainder should be placed in a collection container.
残余物应倒入回收容器。
Crystallization (Purification) 结晶（纯化）
Dissolve the residue obtained from the chloroform extraction of the tea solution in about 10ml of the chloroform that you saved from the distillation.
将从茶溶液的氯仿萃取液中获得的残留物溶解于10毫升蒸馏所得的氯仿。
It may be necessary to heat the mixture on a steam bath.
用蒸汽浴加热混合物。
Transfer the solution to a 50ml beaker.
将溶液转移到50毫升烧杯中。
Rinse the flask with an additional 5ml of chloroform and combine this in the beaker.
再用5毫升氯仿冲洗烧瓶，倒入烧杯。
Evaporate the now light-green solution to dryness by heating it on a steam bath in the hood.
在通风厨中，用蒸汽浴加热浅绿色溶液，溶液蒸发，直至干燥。
The residue obtained on evaporation of the chloroform is next crystallized by the mixed solvent method.
氯仿蒸发后获得的残留物接下来就会用混合溶剂的方法结晶。
Dissolve it in a small quantity (about 2 to 4ml) of hot benzene and add just enough high boiling (60'C to 90'C) petroleum ether (or ligroin) to turn the solution faintly cloudy.
将它溶解于少量热苯中（大约2至4毫升），加入足够高沸点的石油醚（60至90摄氏度），使溶液变得轻微浑浊。
Alternatively, acetone may be used for simple crystallization without a second solvent.
作为选择，丙酮可用于简单结晶，而不用其他的溶剂。
Cool the solution and collect the crystalline product by vacuum filtration using a Hirsch funnel.
冷却溶液，用赫尔希漏斗真空过滤，收集结晶产物。
Crystallize the product the same way a second time if necessary, and allow the product to dry by allowing it to stand in the suction funnel for a while.
如有必要的话用同样的方式再结晶一次，并通过让产物在吸入漏斗上短暂停留的方式干燥产物。
Weigh the product.
称重。
Calculate the weighty percentage yield based on tea and determine the melting point.
计算基于茶叶的重量百分比收率，判断熔点。
If desired, the product may be further purified by sublimation as described in the next
experiment.
如果和推想的相符，产物将通过下面描述的实验进一步升华纯化。
The Derivative 衍生
Dissolve 0.20g of Caffeine and 0.15g of salicylic acid in 15ml of benzene in a small beaker by warming the mixture on a steam bath.
在小烧杯中，将0.20克咖啡因和0.15克水杨酸溶解于15毫升苯，用蒸汽浴缓慢加热混合物。
Add about 5ml of high boiling (60`C to 90'C) petroleum ether and allow the mixture to cool and crystallize.
加入大约5毫升高沸点石油醚（60至90摄氏度），让混合物降温、结晶。
It may be necessary to cool the beaker in an ice water bath or to add a small amount of extra petroleum ether to induce crystallization.
用冰水浴冷却烧杯或者再加入少量石油醚来进一步结晶是十分必要的。
Collect the crystalline product by vacuum filtration using a Hirsch funnel.
用赫尔希漏斗真空过滤，收集结晶产物。
Dry the product by allowing it to stand in the air, and determine its melting point.
让产物在空气中晾干，判断熔点。
Check the value against that in the literature.
与文献值进行检查比对。
Submit the sample to the instructor in a labeled vial.
将样品放入贴标签的小瓶中，交给老师。
Selected from Pavia Donald L. Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques: a Contemporary Approach W. B. Saunders Company, 1976.
Exercises
1. Answer the following questions:
(1)Can you list several plants that contain caffeine?
(2) What kind of method can be used to isolate caffeine from tea?
(3) How does man use caffeine in the daily life?
2. Competing the following paragraph. Choose Not More Than Three Words from the passage for each answer.
The active ingredient that makes tea and coffee valuable to man is __caffeine__ .Caffeine is an _tannin___ , a class of naturally occurring compounds containing nitrogen and having the properties of an organic amine base. Tea and coffee are not the only plant sources of caffeine. Others include: kola nuts, mate leaves, guarana seeds, and in small amount, cocoa beans.
Place 35g of ground coffee a boiling stone and 125ml of water into a 500ml __three neck__ round bottom flask equipped with a ____condenser for reflux. __Stopper__ the unused openings in the flask and heat the mixture under __reflux__ for about 20 minutes. Use a Bunsen burner to heat. During the heating period, assemble a vacuum filtration apparatus. When boiling action has stopped and the coffee grounds have settled somewhat, but while the solution is still hot, filter the solution through a __filter paper__ by vacuum filtration.
3. Put the following into Chinese:
cellulose glucose chloroform beaker crystallization purification apparatus filter paper
纤维素葡萄糖氯仿烧杯结晶纯化仪器滤纸
hydroxyl group carboxyl group benzene acetone evaporation insoluble condensation residue 羟基羧基苯丙酮蒸发不溶的冷凝残留物
制药工程专业英语课文翻译
Unit 1 Production of Drugs About 5000 antibiotics have already been isolated from microorganisms，but of these only somewhat fewer than 100 are in therapeutic use. It must be remembered，however，that many derivatives have been modified by partial synthesis for therapeutic use;some 50，000 agents have been semisynthetically obtained from户lactams alone in the last decade. Fermentations are carried out in stainless steel fermentors with volumes up to 400 m3. To avoid contamination of the microorganisms with phages etc. the whole process has to be performed under sterile conditions. Since the more important fermentations occur exclusively under aerobic conditions a good supply of oxygen or air(sterile)is needed. Carbon dioxide sources include carbohydrates，e. g. molasses，saccharides，and glucose. Additionally the microorganisms must be supplied in the growth medium with nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonium sulfate，ammonia，or urea，as well as with inorganic phosphates. Furthermore，constant optimal pH and temperature are required. In the case of penicillin G，the fermentation is finished after 200 hours，and the cell mass is separated by filtration. The desired active agents are isolated from the filtrate by absorption or extraction processes. The cell mass，if not the desired product，can be further used as an animal feedstuff owing to its high protein content. 关于5000抗生素已经分离出的微生物，但其中只有不到100有些治疗使用。必须记住，但是，许多衍生工具已被用于治疗使用部分合成修改;约50,000剂已被semisynthetically取得户内酰胺在过去十年孤独。发酵都是在不锈钢发酵罐出来的量高达400立方米。为了避免与噬菌体等微生物污染的全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的发酵只发生在有氧条件下的氧气或空气好电源（无菌）是必要的。二氧化碳的来源包括碳水化合物，大肠杆菌克糖蜜，糖和葡萄糖。另外必须提供的微生物在与含氮如硫酸铵，氨水或尿素化合物生长介质，以及与无机磷酸盐。此外，不断最适pH和温度是必需的。在青霉素G的情况下，发酵完成200小时后，细胞的质量是由过滤分离。所需的活性剂是隔离的滤液吸收或提取工艺。大规模的细胞，如果不理想的产品，可进一步用作动物，由于其蛋白质含量高的饲料。 By modern recombinant techniques microorganisms have been obtained which also allow production of peptides which were not encoded in the original genes. Modified E. coli bacteria make it thus possible to produce A- and B- chains of human insulin or proinsulin analogs. The disulfide bridges are formed selectively after isolation，and the final purification is effected by chromatographic procedures. In this way human insulin is obtained totally independently from any pancreatic material taken from animals. Other important peptides，hormones，and enzymes，such as human growth hormone (HGH)，neuroactive peptides，somatostatin，interferons，tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)，lymphokines，calcium regulators like calmodulin，protein vaccines，as well as monoclonal antibodies used as diagnostics，are synthesized in this way. 利用现代微生物重组技术已获得这也让其中不是在原来的基因编码多肽的生产。改性大肠杆菌从而使可能产生A型和B -人胰岛素或胰岛素原类似物链。二硫键形成的选择性分离后，最终由色谱净化工序的影响。通过这种方式获得的人类胰岛素完全独立采取任何从动物胰腺材料。 其他重要肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（hGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活物（tPA），淋巴因子，如钙调节钙调蛋白，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体是合成了这种方式。 The enzymes or enzymatic systems which are present in a single microorganism can be used for directed stereospecific and regiospecific chemical reactions. This principle is especially useful in steroid chemistry. Here we may refer only to the microbiological 11-a- hydro xylation of progesterone to 11-a-hydroxyprogesterone，a key product used in the synthesis of cortisone. Isolated enzymes are important today not only because of the technical importance of the enzymatic saccharification of starch，and the isomerization of glucose to fructose，They are also significant in the countless test procedures used in diagnosing illness，and in enzymatic analysis which is used in the monitoring of therapy. A number of enzymes are themselves used as active ingredients. Thus preparations containing proteases (e. g. chymotrypsin，pepsin，and trypsin)，amylases and lipases，mostly in combination with synthetic antacids，promote digestion. Streptokinase and urokinase are important in thrombolytics，and asparaginase is used as a cytostatic agent in the treatment of leukemia. 这些酶或微生物在一个单一的酶系统，目前可用于立体定向和regiospecific化学反应。这个原则是有用的，尤其是在化学类固醇。在这里，我们只能引用的微生物十一水电黄体酮xylation至11人羟，一个关键的产品在可的松合成。隔离酶是重要的，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术重要性的今天，和葡萄糖异构果糖，他们也都在无数次试验在诊断疾病所用的程序显着，在酶的分析，在使用监测治疗。 数量的酶本身作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶制剂（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的合成主要是在与抗酸药相结合，促进消化。链激酶和尿激酶溶栓是重要的，是天冬酰胺酶在治疗白血病细胞生长剂。 Finally mention must be made of the important use of enzymes as `biocatalysts’in chemical reactions where their
《土木工程专业英语》段兵延第二版全书文章翻译精编版
第一课 土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
制药工程专业英语第11单元课文中英文对照
PART 3 INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY Unit 11 Tablets (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form) Role in Therapy The oral route of drug administration is the most important method of administering drugs for systemic effects. Except in cases of Insulin therapy，the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medications. The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects，with two classes of marketed products: Nitroglycerin硝酸甘油酯for the treatment of angina心绞痛and scopolamine莨菪胺for the treatment of motion sickness晕动病，指晕车、晕船等. Other drugs are certain to follow，but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action. The parenteral route of administration is important in treating medical emergencies in which a subject is comatose昏迷的or cannot swallow，and in providing various types of maintenance therapy for hospitalized patients. Nevertheless，it is probable that at least 90 % of all drugs used to produce systemic effects are administered投药，给药by the oral route. When a new drug is discovered，one of the first questions a pharmaceutical company asks is whether or not drug can be effectively administered for its intended effect by the oral route. If it cannot，the drug is primarily relegated to被降级到administration in a hospital setting or physician's office. If patient self- administration cannot be achieved，the sales of the drug constitute only a small fraction of what the market would be otherwise. Of drugs that are administered orally，solid oral dosage forms represent the preferred class of product. The reasons for this preference are as follows. Tablets and capsules represent unit dosage forms in which one usual dose of the drug has been accurately placed. By comparison相比之下，liquid oral dosage forms，such as syrups，suspensions，emulsions，solutions，and elixirs，are usually designed to contain one dose of medication in 5 to 30 ml. The patient is then asked to measure his or her own medication using a teaspoon， 第三部分工业药剂学 第11单元药片(医药的片剂剂型) 在治疗中的作用 口服给药途径是通过给药获得全身作用效果中最重要的方法。除了胰岛素疗法之外，肠外给药途径通常不用于（病人的）自主性用药。而局部给药途径则是在最近才被用来把药物送到体内从而产生全身作用。这种途径有两种上市产品：用于治疗心绞痛的硝酸甘油酯和用于治疗晕动病的莨菪胺。今后肯定还会有其他的药物相继出现，但是局部给药的途径在有效的药物吸收从而获得全身性药物作用方面仍有其局限性。在病人处于昏迷状态或病人不能吞咽的医疗急救处理中，肠外给药途径是很重要的，同时它也给住院的病人提供了各种不同类型的维持疗法。然而，可能至少有90%的被用于产生全身作用的药物是通过口服的途径给药的。当一种新的药物被研发出来的时候，制药公司问的第一个问题就是这种药物能否有效地通过口服给药途径来达到预期的效果。如果不能，那么这种药物就要被降级到医院或者医生的办公室里。如果病人的自主用药不能实现，那么（这种）药物的销量就会是能实现病人的自主用药的药物销量的很少一部分。在所有通过口服来给药的药物当中，固体口服制剂是（人们）偏爱的产品种类。其原因如下：药片和胶囊代表着单元剂量的形式，其中通常已经放置好了一个剂量的药物。相应地，液体口服制剂，比如说糖浆、悬浮液、乳剂、溶液和酏剂，则通常被设计成在5-30 ml （液体中）包含一个剂量的药物。病人会被要求用茶匙、调羹或其他测量装置来衡量他自己的用药量。病人自己用药时这种剂量测量方法，其误差范围通常
土木工程专业英语正文课文翻译
第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
土木工程专业英语课文原 文及对照翻译 Newly compiled on November 23, 2020
Civil Engineering Civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and
土木工程专业英语修正版
Take the road of sustainable development civil engineering Abstract: Civil Engineering is the oldest in human history "technical science" as a system of industrial activity, the essence of civil engineering production process, is a technical process Civil engineering is the construction of various facilities in science and technology, collectively, both refer to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground, underground, water facilities, a variety of projects, but also refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out survey and design , construction, maintenance, repair and other technology. As an important basis for discipline, civil engineering has its important attributes: a comprehensive, social, practical, technical and economic and artistic unity. With the progress of human society and development, civil engineering has already evolved into large-scale comprehensive subject, and has many branches, such as: construction, railroad engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, specialty engineering structures, water supply and drainage projects, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environmental engineering and other disciplines. There are six professional civil engineering: architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, built environment and equipment engineering, water supply and drainage works and road and bridge projects. Civil engineering is a form of human activity. Human beings pursued it to change the natural environment for their own benefit. Buildings, transportations, facilities, infrastructures are all included in civil engineering. The development of civil engineering has a long history. Our seniors had left a lot of great constructions to us. For example, Zhao Zhou Bridge is the representative of our Chinese civil engineering masterpieces. It has a history of more than 1300 years and is still service at present. Civil engineering has been so rapid development of the period. A lot of new bridges have been constructed, and many greater plans are under discussion. China is a large county. And she is still well developing. However, civil engineers will be facing more complex problems. We should pay attention to the growing population and a lot of deteriorating infrastructures. We should prepare for the possibility of natural disasters. To meet grow needs in the
制药工程专业英语5单元
P54-专业英语作业 1. Drug Development is a very complex process requiring a great deal of coordination and communication between a wide range of different functional groups. 中文翻译:药物开发是一个十分复杂的过程，需要在广泛的不同功能性团队之间进行大量的协调与沟通。 2. It is expensive, particularly in the later phases of clinical development, where studies involve hundreds of patients 这个过程（药物开发）这是昂贵的，特别是在临床开发的后期阶段，其中涉及到对数百名患者的研究。 3. It is currently estimated that the development of a new drug costs about $230million and takes somewhere between7and10years form initiation of preclinical development to first marketing. 目前估计,一种新药的开发成本约为2.3亿美元,并且从启动临床前的开发阶段到首次上市，需要花费7到10年 4. Drug development is a high-risk business; although the rate is increasing, only about one out of every ten new chemical entities studied in human beings for the first time will ever become a product. 药物开发是一个高风险的业务，尽管比率在不断上升，但是在完成了首次在人体研究中的每十个新化学实体中，大约只有一个能成为产品。 5.原文：As a drug candidate progresses through development the risks
《土木工程专业英语》课文翻译 作者 戴俊 第01单元
第一单元 课文 土木工程前言 或许，工程师对于人类文明形成所做出的贡献多于其他专业人才群体。在各个社会中，工程师的作用就是发展技术应用以满足实际需要。例如，应用电力系统向城市供电，应用水轮驱动水碾，应用人造心脏延长生命，等。向我们提供水、燃料、电力的系统，交通网络系统，通讯系统，以及带来其他方便的系统是工程技术应用的产物。尽管真正的工程师们在以上进步和人类幸福中所起的作用，但对他们所起作用的理解仍是不完全的。 工程是将知识转化为实际有效应用的技术，工程师则是在这样的转化中起关键作用的人。工程是服务人类的职业，人类环境是需要考虑的重要事项。通常，区分工程师和科学家一直存在困难，决定科学家的工作在哪里终止，工程师的工作从哪里开始也存在困难。 科学与工程中有联系的工作的基本区别在于它们的目的不同。科学家以发明为目的，而工程师坚持有效使用发明来满足人类的需要。例如，德国物理学家亨利奇·赫兹发现了无线电波，而古里耶尔莫·马克尼则利用无线电波发展了无线电信技术，这是一项工程奇迹。在相关科学家建立了核裂变的科学原理后，制造原子武器、建造核电厂的艰难工作则由电力、化学和机械工程师来完成。 土木工程是以向人类提供安全、舒适住所为目的的工程分支。住所是人类的基本需要之一，它由土木工程师负责提供。供水和灌溉系统的有效规划能增加一个国家的粮食产量。住所除了简单的掩蔽功能外，土木工程师还能将其建造来为居住者提供安宁、舒适的生活。世界上的工程奇迹——从塔形结构到今天的薄壳结构——都是土木工程发展的结果。道路、铁路、桥梁等交通网线是土木工程师的劳动果实，没有这样的交通网线，社会将不可能得到发展。 任何工程学科都是由各种专业分支构成的巨大领域，土木工程的主要专业分支如下： 1.结构工程 结构工程是土木工程的最重要专业分支，结构的建造需要有效的规划、设计和施工方法，以实现完整的建造目的。一般地，结构工程建造包含五个步骤： ●定位，并合理排列结构构件，形成确定的形式，以实现最佳的使用功能。 ●决定作用于结构上不同力的大小、方向和性质。 ●结构分析，弄清受上述作用力的结构构件的行为特征。 ●结构设计，以保证不同载荷作用下的结构稳定性。 ●结构施工，采用精心选择的材料，由熟练工人完成。 2.岩土工程 为了实现建筑于地面结构的有效功能，必须知道土的特征。岩土工程给出土的基本知识体系，这一分支涉及以下方面： ●土——“土力学”下的材料——的性质和行为特征。 ●结构、机器等基础的不同类型及其稳定性。 岩土工程也涉及基础的分析、设计和施工。 3.流体力学、水力学和水力机械
制药工程专业英语试卷
制药工程专业英语纸卷 一、Put the following into English.(20’) 生物碱中间体萃取胰岛素衍生物苯胺处方慢性的多肽配基 二、Put the following into Chinese.(20’) Hormone steroid penicillin metabolite chemotherapy in vitro affinity prescription chronic polypeptide 三、List drugs that are derived from traditional medicinal plants.(不少 于5个,10’) 四、Translation.(50’) 1.Artemisinin is an endoperoxide of the sesquiterpene lactone. The structure of this compound is too complex to be synthesised effectively. Artemisia is also found in many parts of the US, abundantly along the Potomac River in Washington DC, but the drug content of these varieties is only about half that of the Chinese variety. 2.This does not mean, however, that natural products or other agents are less important. They can serve as valuable lead structures, and they are frequently needed as starting materials or as intermediates for important synthetic products.
制药工程专业英语 7单元
Developing drugs from traditional medicinal plants Over three quarters of the world's population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care .Approximately one third of the prescription drugs in the US contain plant components, and more than 120 important prescription drugs are derived from plants. Most of these drugs were developed because of their use in traditional medicine. Economically, this represents $8000-10,000M of annual consumer spending. Recent World Health Organization (WHO) studies indicate that over 30 per cent of the world's plant species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purposes. Of the 250,000 higher plant species on Earth, more than 80,000 species are medicinal. Although traditional medicine is widespread throughout the world , it is an integral part of each individual culture. Its practice is based mainly on traditional beliefs handed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years. Unfortunately, much of this ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate. The scientific study of traditional medicines and the systematic preservation of medicinal plants are thus of great importance. For quite a long time, the only way to use plant medicines was either direct application or the use of crude plant extracts. With the development of organic chemistry at the beginning of this century, extraction and fractionation techniques improved significantly. It became possible to isolate and identify many of the active chemicals from plants. In the 1940s, advances in chemical synthesis enabled the synthesis of many plant components and their derivatives. In western countries, it was thought that chemical synthesis of drugs would be more effective and economical than isolation from natural sources. Indeed, this is true in many cases. However, in many other cases, synthetic analogues are not as effective as their natural counterparts. In addition, some synthetic drugs cost many times more than natural ones. Inspired by these realisations, coupled with the fact that many drugs with complex structures may be totally impossible to synthesise, there is now a resurgent trend of returning to natural resources for drug development Important prescription drugs from plants Ephedrine is the oldest and most classic example of a prescription drug developed from a traditional medicinal plant. It is derived from Ma Huang , a leafless shrub. Used to relieve asthma and hay fever in China for over 5000 years, it was introduced into western medicine in 1924 by Chen and Schmidt. Ephedrine is an alkaloid closely related to adrenaline, the major product of the adrenal gland. Pharmacologically, Ephedrine is used