欧洲文化入门复习重点

Introduction

1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.

2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.

The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.

Division One：Greek Culture and Roman Culture

1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.

2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.

3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.

4、The Home r’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.

5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.

6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师

①Aeschylus

Prometheus Bound —→Shelly Prometheus Unbound

②Sophocles

Oedipus the King —→ Freud’s “the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结)

—→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers

③Euripides

A．Trojan Women

B．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)

C．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece，to be specific, Euripides.

7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.

Aristophanes writes about nature.

8、History (Historical writing)

“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war (between Greeks and Persians)

“t he greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (between Sparta and Athens) 9、①Euclid’s Elements解析几何

It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.

②Archimedes

His work laid basis for not only geometry几何学,but also arithmetic算术, mechanics机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学

“Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world”.（Archimedes）

10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)

From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire, and Greek that of the eastern half.

Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.

11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.

12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.

13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.

14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed

by the Roman legions(罗马军团)

15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as

Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)

16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed

by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana

17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).

18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.

19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.

20、Cicero西赛罗

his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的

an enormous influence on the development of European prose.

21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德

22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.

The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所

23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式

24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式

25. Many of Plato’s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.

How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?

(1)、Three founders

1、Pythagoras

①All things were numbers.

②Scientific mathematics.

③Theory of proportion.比例的理论

2、Heracleitue

①Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源

②The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一

3、Democritus

①the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者

②materialism.唯物主义

(2)、Three thinkers

1、Socrates

①He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.

②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.

2、Plato

①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.

②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.

3、Aristotle

①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.

②Aristotle is a humanist.

(2)、Five contending schools

1、The Sophists诡辩派

①Under the leadership of Protagoras.

②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论

③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.

2、The Cynics犬儒派

①Under the leadership of Diogenes.

②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.

③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.

3、The Sceptics置疑学派

①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.

②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.

4、The Epicureans享乐派

①Under the leadership of Epicurus.

②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.

Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.

Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.

5、The Stoics斯多哥派

①Under the leadership of Zeno.

②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.

One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.

He developed into Stoics’ duty.

He was also a materialist.

What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？

1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.

2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world

3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.

What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?

There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.

1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.

2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.

3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect. ②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn. ③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.

Division Two：The Bible and Christianity

1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.

2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.

3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)

Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.

4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.

5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.

6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.

7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.

8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.

9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.

10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经

11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.

12、Noah’s Ark was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.

13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.

Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.

14、The History Books

① The development of system of landed nobles.

② The development of monarchy. 君主专制

③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成

④ The settlement in the highlands

⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.

15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.

16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马修福音书)

17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.

What difference between Christianity and the other religions?

Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.

1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.

2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. (加尔文主义也有这样的观点)

What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?

1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.

2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.

Division Three：The Middle Ages

1、the Middle ages

In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.

The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.

2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭

3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”,

a grant of land.

4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.

6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)

7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)

8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”

9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)

10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.

11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)

By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.

12、Carolingian Renaissance

Carolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.

13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)

The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.

14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)

② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)

15、Gothic

① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.

② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.

③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）

16、The Canterbury Tales:

① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.

② Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.

③ Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.

17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？

Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.

Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？

1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.

2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.

3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and a member of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.

4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.

How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?

1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.

2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.

3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.

4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.

5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.

6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.

What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?

(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)

1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)

2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)

3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.

4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.

5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in

western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.

How did literature develop in the middle ages?

1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.

2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)

① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.

② The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.

③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)

3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)

① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.

②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.

③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人

④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.

Division Four：Renaissance and Reformation

1、Renaissance

Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The wo rd “Renaissance” means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.

Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.

2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.

3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie. (人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)

4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.

(以人为本—人文主义的核心)

5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.

6、Michelangelo —— David —— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis ) —— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶) —— Moses (摩西)

7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)

He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.

8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.

9、Titian —— The Venus of Urbino (维纳斯)

10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.

11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.

12、The reformation get its victory first in England.

13、Reformation

The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.

宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经

14、Calvinism

Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。

15、The national religion established after reformation in England was called The church of England or The Anglican Church.

16、The English Bible was adopted in England after Reformation.

17、Counter-Reformation (反宗教改革)

By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany.

The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They mustered their forces, the dedicated Catholic groups, to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its vitality. This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.

18、Francis Bacon introduced Montaigne “Essais” into the English literature.

19、Montaigne was a French humanist known for his “Essais”(Essays).

The representative author of Renaissance in France was Montaigne with his famous work Essais. The representative novelist of Renaissance in Spain was Cervantes with his famous work Do Quixote, which marked European culture entry into a new stage. (歧视文学作品)

20、Renaissance in Germany:

Dürer —— The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse

—— Knight, Death and the Devil

21、文艺复兴影响到达英国晚的原因：The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.

22、在英国达到文艺复兴高潮的第一个原因：It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English.

William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More.

第二个原因：The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability on the one hand and economic prosperity on the other.

23、England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.

24、William Shakespeare

悲剧—→ Hamlet (哈姆雷特), Othello (奥赛罗), King Lear (李尔王), Macbeth (麦克白)

喜剧—→ As You Like It and Twelfth Night (第十二夜)

25、Copernicus (哥白尼): —→ C entric (日心说)

Which was proved by Kepler and Galieo? Centric (日心说)

26、Dante: The equality of the divine power and the secular power.

What is the great significance of the reformation?

(What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture?)

1、The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court (法院) to which all rulers and states were to be morally responsible for.

2、Economically, peasants all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount of their gains (利益) to the Pope.

3、In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly (垄断) of the church was broken.

4、In religion, Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge (挑战) the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.

5、In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to the national languages as a result of various translations of the Bible into the vernacular.

6、In spirit, absolute obedience (盲从) became out-molded (不复存在) and the spirit of quest (探索), debate (争论), was ushered in by the reformists.

What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture?

1、The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church’s dispensation.

2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. (给…以致命打击)

Division Five

The Seventeenth Century

1、The first time to look at men’s place in the Universe started in the 17th century.

2、In modernism, men’s position in the universe was looked at in a fresh new way.

3、The outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men’s place in the universe.(人在宇宙中的位置)

4、The 17th century philosophy was focus on materialist in nature.

5、17th century Science: ☆physics ☆mathematics ☆chemistry biology psychology

6、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.

7、Kepler’s Laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation

8、the laws of gravitation (万有引力的内容):

the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies (天体) in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is call gravitation.

9、Francis Bacon’s works

—→ The Advancement of Learning

—→ The New Atlantis

—→ The Novum Organum (New Method)

—→ Essays (散文集)

Essays are Bacon’s most widely read work，58 essays were included.

10、Francis Bacon

① Knowledge is power. (知识就是力量)

② Virtue is like precious odours — most fragrant when they are incensed or crushed.

品德像宝贵的气味－当被压碎或焚香时很芳香

③ Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed (大致浏览), and some few to be chewed and digested.(翻翻而已)

④ Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man.(纯粹的人) 读书可以使人成竹在胸

⑤ Histories make men wise. (学史可以使人明智)

⑥Wives are young men’s mistresses (情人), companions (伴侣) for middleage, and old men’s nurses.(照顾人的人)

11、Tomas Hobbes —→ Leviathan

12、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.

13、Hobbes —→ abso lute Monarchy (君主制)

Locke —→ Constitutional Monarchy (君主立宪制)

14、The English Revolution is also called Bourgeoisie Revolution.

15、Democracy (民主的体现是) —→ Parliament (议会)

（希腊民主的体现是公民大会）

16、1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament (议会).

17、Milton —→ Paradise Lost (失乐园)

The fall of men (圣经的旧约)

Satan

18、Theory of Knowledge认知论

Descartes employed methodic doubt (置疑方法论) with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable (不容置疑的) truth. I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind . Descartes believed that they are not dependable.

19、Classicism (新古典主义)

Classicism implies the revival of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. But French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival. It intended to produce a literature, French to the core (以法语为中心), which was worthy of Greek and classical ideals. This neoclassicism reached its climax in France in the 17th century.(代表：莫里哀和德国的歌德?席勒)

20、French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival (并非古典主义的复苏).

21、Rationalism was believed to be able to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. Here Descartes provided the philosophical foundation for the French neoclassicism.

22、Molière (莫里哀) —→ The best representative of French neoclassicism.

Why do we say the 17th century is a transitional period from middle ages to the modern times?

1、This advance began in science, in astronomy，physics and pure mathematics , owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes.

2、The outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of

men’s place in the universe.

3、The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other chasses.

4、The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.

What is the theory of the Social Contract, according to the Hobbes?

1、It is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish (处罚).

2、Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas (共有财产).

3、To escape anarchy (无政府状态), men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign (君主). In return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security .

4、The powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only be the centralization (中央集权) of authority (权利) in one person that the evil can be avoided.

5、As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.(主张君主制)

6、Government was not created by God, but by men themselves.

What is John Locke’s Social Contract?

1、Society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, and therefore, society is natural to man.

2、The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent (赞同) of those who are incorporated into (与…融为一体) political society and subject themselves to government.(人要完全屈服于政府的统治)

3、Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent (同意) to submit (服从) to the will of the majority (大多数人的意志) and that the will of the majority must prevail.

4、Locke also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(是社会契约的签约方), If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved.(有效地取消), This idea was welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution and the bourgeoisie revolution in England.(北美独立战争和英国资产阶级革命)

What is the great significant of the English Revolution?

1、It was the first time that capitalism has defeated absolute monarchy (君主专制) in history.

2、The English Revolution marked that the modern times are approaching.

3、After the English Revolution the constitutional monarchy (君主立宪制) has come into being as well as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Right established the supremacy (至高无上的权利) of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of Rights limited the Sovereign’s power (王权) in certain important directions.

Division Six

The Age of Englightment

Enlightenment

Enlightement was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread

support among the ruling and intellectural classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century. It characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason (批评推理) to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State. Therefore the Enlightenment is sometimes called the Age of Reason (理智的年代).

(Why do we say the 17th century provides the intellectual origin for the Enlightement?)

2、Newton’s theory of gravitation (万有引力理论) further demonstrated to the world that the universe is governed by laws that could be understood by the human mind.

3、The major force of the Enlightenment was the French philosophes, such as Montesquieu, V oltaire (伏尔泰) and Rousseau (卢梭). Diederot, who edited the famous Encyclopédie (百科全书).

4、Diederot —→ Encyclopédie (百科全书).

5、Montesquieu (第一个加入到启蒙运动的法国人)

—→ was the first of the great French men of letters ass ociated with the Enlightenment

—→ Persian Letters (波斯人的信札)

—→ The spirit of the Laws (论法的精神)

6、The theory of the separation of powers (三权分立理论) was put forward by Montesquieu in his work The Spirit of the Laws. He believed that the legislative (立法), executive (行政) and judicial (司法) powers must be confided (托付) to different individuals, acting independently.

The theory of the separation of powers was accepted by the U.S. Constitution. (三权分立的思想被美国宪法所接受)

7、V oltaire (伏尔泰) —→ His works are an outstanding embodiment (杰出的体现) of the principles (原则性的) of the French Enlightenment.

—→ Letters Anglaise (Letters philosophiques) 哲学信件

—→ Candide

8、Rousseau (卢梭) ：The greatest figures of the French Enlightenment (对浪漫主义文学思潮产生影响的法国哲学家是卢梭)

he glorified human nature and attacked social inequality. (赞扬人的本质反对社会不平等)

—→ The Origin of Human Inequality (论人类平等的根源) “man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”

—→ The Social Contract (社会契约论) social democracy 呼唤社会的民主

9、Daniel Defoe —→ Robinson Crusoe (鲁滨逊漂流记)

—→ One of the greates t fiction writers (小说作家) of 18th century England.

10、Swift —→ Satirist (讽刺大师) in the English language

—→ A modest Proposal

—→ Gulliver’s Travels (格列佛游记)

11、Fielding —→ Father of the English novel (英国现代小说之父)

—→ 小说类型为：Modern novel

—→ The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling

He was also the first person to approach the genre with a fully worked-out theory of the novel. (用小说理论进行创作的第一人)

12、Goethe (歌德) —→ 德国文学第一人

—→ The Sorrows of Young Werther (少年维特的烦恼) 郭沫若翻译

—→ Faust (浮士德)

—→ Poetry and Truth (诗和真理) Autobiography (自传体)

13、Schiller (席勒) —→ He was a founder of modern German literature.

—→ Cabal and Love (阴谋与爱情)

14 Schiller and Goethe are the chief representatives of German classicism

15、Kant (康德) —→ Waterhead of modern philosophy (当代哲学的源头)

nebular hypothesis (那不勒假说or 星云假说)

—→ General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens (自然发展史和天体理论) nebular hypothesis在这部作品中提出

—→ Critique of Pure Reason (论纯粹的推理) ：rationalism with empiricism (把理论主义与经验主义融为一体)在上书中；human knowledge is limited to the phenomenal world. 局限于外部世界

16、The Musical Enlightenment (音乐启蒙运动)

By the beginning of the 18th century the art of creating music had become almost entirely rationalized . It came to its richest fruition in the works of Bach (巴赫) and Handel (亨德尔). Bach and Handel represented a trend towards greater regularity (规律性) of style in the clearly defined types and forms, in a series of standardized formulas.

17、Bach (巴赫)

—Bach created a synthetic art (人为艺术) which summarized all the developments of the Baroque era.

—为Haydn (海顿), Mozart, and Beethoven 打下基础的人是Bach

—Schumann said, “Music owes as much to Bach as Christianity does to its Founder.” (欧洲现代主义音乐的创始人)

18、Handel (亨德尔)

—combination (结合) of the Italian traditions of solo (独奏为主) and instrumental style, the English choral (合唱) tradition.

—→ Messiah (米赛亚)轻歌剧教会音乐☆

19、The Baroque Period was followed by the Classical Period, roughly between 1750 and 1820.

20、Classical Period 三大代表：Haydn (海顿), Mozart, and Beethoven.

21、Haydn (海顿) —→ Austrian

—→ London symphonies (伦敦交响乐) 以交响乐为主

29、Mozart (莫扎特) 歌剧成就最高

—→ Operas (歌剧)

—→ Don Giovanni (唐璜)

—→ The Marriage of Figaro (费加罗的婚礼)

Division Seven

Romanticism

1、Romanticism

Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Starting from the ideas of Rousseau in France and from the Storm and Stress movement (狂飙运动) in Germany. Romanticism emphasized individual values and aspirations above those of society. As a reaction to the industrial revolution, it looked to the Middle

Ages and to direct contact with nature for inspiration. Romanticism gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th century Europe.

2、Blake —→ Songs of Innocence (天真之歌) happy world

—→ Songs of Experience (经验之歌) bitter world

3、The Laker poets (The Lakers)

① Wordsworth —→ Lyrical Ballads (抒情民谣) 与Coleridge 合写

—→ The Prelude (序曲)

② Coleridge —→ Kubla Khan (忽必烈汗) exotic culture (外来文化)

—→ The Rime of the ancient Mariner (古舟子咏)

4、Lyrical Ballads marked the beginning of the Romantic literature.

5、Coleridge’s works possessed the characteristic o f exotic culture. (外来文化)

6、Byron —→ Isles of Greece (希腊诸岛)

—→ Don Juan (唐璜) 莫扎特改编成歌剧

7 Byronic hero was created by Byron in the Romantic period of the English literature. The Byronic hero is characterized by bravery and hard working spirit, such as Don Juan as the best representative of the Byronic hero.

8、Shelly —→ Ode to the West Wind (西风颂) (If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?)

—→ Prometheus Unbound The Lyrical drama 抒情戏剧

“If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?” was wr itten in Ode to the West Wind by Shelly.

Shelly wrote a Lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound which is a parody Prometheus bound written by Aeschylus

9、Keats —→ Ode to a Nightingale (夜莺赋)

—→ Ode on a Grecian Urn (希腊古瓮颂)

“Beauty is truth, truth beauty,”was written in Ode on a Grecian Urn by Keats.

10、The death of Scott marked the end of Romanticism in England. 他的死标志着浪漫主义结束

11、Victor Hugo was a best representative writer of Romanticism in France.

—→ Cromwell

—→ Notre Dame de Paris (巴黎圣母院) —→ Les Miserables (悲惨世界)

12、George Sand —→ Indiana (印第安纳州)

13、Russian Romantic literature was against The Tzarist rule.(沙皇统治)

14、The representative writers of Russia Romanticism were Pushkin and Lermontov.

15、Pushkin —→ Ruslan and Liudmila (罗斯兰与雷尔达米拉)

—→ Boris Godunov (布达耶夫)

“It is people, not the Tzar that could change history”.

—→ Eugene Onegin (奥涅金) based on Byron’s model Don Juan.

Pushkin was himself a “Byronic hero”

16、Lermontov (雷蒙托夫) —→ The death of a P oet （Pushkin）

—→ A Hero of Our Time (时代英雄)

17、Romantic Music

The Romantic Movement in music dominated the period about 1830 to about 1900. It was merely part of a general movement, which, all over Europe, especially in Germany and France, affected all arts. The Romantic Music is divided into two periods: The early Romantic Music represented by Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, and the later Romantic Music represented by Brahms and Tchaikovsky. 18、Beethoven —→ Fate (命运交响曲)

—→ Pastoral (田园交响曲)

19、Schubert —→ Lied (art song)

Music came to him as naturally as breathing. (像呼吸一样顺畅) 是形容Schubert的

20、Chopin (肖邦) Polish (波兰)

⊙ piano music的奠基者

⊙ He stood in the same relation to piano music that handle did to the oratorio (清唱剧), Mozart to the concerto (协奏曲) and opera, Beethoven to the symphony (交响乐), and Schubert to the lied (艺术歌曲).

21、Schumann

⊙ His works were full of imagination. (充满幻想力)

⊙ He went a good deal further than most towards individualization (个性化) and program music (标题音乐).

22、Mendelssohn (门德尔松) —→ Fingal’s Cave (圣格尔的洞穴) German

⊙ He was also a master in painting landscapes in music.

23、Belioz —→ Fantastic Symphony (交响乐狂想曲)

24、Brahms浪漫主义与古典主义的完美结合—→German

25、Three B’s refers to Bach, B rahms, Beethoven.

26、Tchaikovsky (Russian) —→ Ballet (芭蕾舞) —→ Swan Lake (天鹅湖)

His music mirrored the deep, emotional character of his people. (National emotion)