二语习得作业

Improvement of Second Language Acquisition comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input.

The input hypothesis:It states simply that we acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that is a little beyond our current level of (acquired) competence

Input is used to refer to the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a native speaker or by another L2 learner. what learners hear and read.

Methods:The methods for investigating input and interaction is that colecting data to study learner language .These data consisted of transcriptions of the interactions in which the learners took part, involving both detailed linguistic analyses and discourse and conversational analysis.

Three different views about input: The Behaviourist view that input is the primary mechanism in language acquisition.Without input, learning cannot occur. The nativist view that learners have internal systems that construct language in a particular order, regardless of the input. The nativist view minimizes the role of the input and explains language development primarily in terms of the learner’s internal processing mechanisms. The interactionist treats acquisition of language as the result of and interaction between the learner’s mental abilities and the linguistic environment. The learner’s processing mechanisms both determine and

are determined by the nature of the input.

The behaviourist view emphasizes the importance of the linguistic environment, which is treated in terms of stimuli and feedback. The nativist view minimizes the role of the input and explains language development primarily in terms of the learner’s internal processing mechanisms. The interactionist view sees language development as the result both of input factors and of innate mechanisms. Language acquisition derives from the efforts of the learner and his interlocutors and involves a dynamic interplay between external and internal factors. Input and interaction in natural settings

Caretaker talk

When caretakers speak to young children who are in the process of acquiring their L1, they typically adjust their speech in a number of ways. The register that results has been referred to variously as ‘baby-talk’, ‘motherese’, ‘caretaker talk’, and ‘child-directed language’Motherese concentrates on the “here and now”rather than on the abstract and remote.

The features of caretaker talk

It is more ungrammatical than speech addressed to adults;

It is simpler;

It is more redundant.

Foreigner talk

In natural settings, input has been considered in terms of foreigner talk. When native speakers address learners, they adjust their normal speech in order to facilitate understanding. These adjustments, which involve both language form and language function, constitute ‘foreigner talk’. The modified speech used by native speakers when talking to L2 learners. It was first studied by Charles Ferguson in 1975. It can promote communication. Gass and Varonis (1994) have found that native speaker modifications are more frequent in two-way communication because conversation provides the native speaker with feedback from the learner and thus enables him to estimate the amount of adjustment required. It can signal speakers' attitude towards their interlocutors. It can teach the target language implicitly.

Input and interaction in classroom settings

Teacher talk

As the main source of input in classroom setting, teacher talk is the speech produced by the teacher in the classroom in order to pass on knowledge or to organize the class or for some interpersonal purposes. Teacher talk parallels that of foreign talk.

Teacher talk refers to the language of teaching tasks as prescribed in textbooks and the language the teacher uses to perform such teaching tasks as paragraphing words or sentences or illustrating grammar rules.

In general, the research confirms the finding for L1 classroom ---

namely, that the teacher takes up about two-thirds of the total time. There is considerable evidence of variability among teachers and programs, but the general picture is again one of teacher dominance in that teachers are likely to explain, question and command and learners to respond. Teachers, like native speakers in general, slow down their rate of speech when talking to learners in comparison to other native speakers and also do so to a greater extent with less proficient learners. However, there is considerable variability among teachers. Teachers are likely to make use of longer pauses when talking to learners than to other native speakers. There have been few studies which have attempted to quantify these aspects of teacher talk, but teachers appear to speak more loudly and to make their speech more distinct when addressing L2 learners. teachers vary their choice of words in accordance with the learners’proficiency level.

Firstly, a teacher can improve his Teacher talk to create harmonious atmosphere in foreign language teaching. Secondly, a good teacher needs to make sure that all students get the feeling of being encouraged. It is the best way for teacher to use the linguistic tools to verbally encourage students, not by pointing out that students’weaknesses do not matter, but by highlighting their strengths.

Interlanguage talk

The language that learners address to each other (ILT constitutes the

primary source of input for many learners). ILT provides learners with opportunities for negotiating meaning as occur in foreigner talk. Interaction Hypothesis

Interaction Hypothesis claims that learners acquire through talking with others. According to this hypothesis, learners are likely to have misunderstandings in their interaction because they do not know the language perfectly. In this situation, the learner will try to use some strategies to express his idea clearly, such as repeating, using other words and simple structures.

Through negotiation of meaning, both the speaker and the listener clarify the contents, verify the understanding, make communicative respond and give feedback to each other, as well as a chance to examine his own assumption.

The Interaction hypothesis is a theory of second-language acquisition which states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication.

The idea existed in the 1980s, but is usually credited to Michael Long for his 1996 paper The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition.

There are some principles about interaction hypothesis

1. The linguistic characteristics of target language input need to be made salient.

2. Learners should receive help in comprehending semantic and syntactic aspects of linguistic input.

3. Learners need to have opportunities to produce target language output.

4. Learners need to notice errors in their own output

5. Learners need to correct their linguistic output.

6. Learners need to engage in target language interaction whose structure can be modified for negotiation of meaning.

7. Learners should engage in L2 tasks designed to maximise opportunities for good interaction.

Output

Output (producing language) is also necessary for language learning - Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1995). Understanding language and producing language are different skills, and the comprehensible input is not enough to push the learner’s linguistic competence to a higher level. Output, the language that the learner himself produces, is an important part of the language acquisition as well. output is the result of learning which actually exists in oral or written forms. Output is also of great significance to L2 acquisition. There are three functions about output. Attention function indicates that the target language output causes the learner to pay more attention to the difference between what he wants to say and what he has said, which will stimulate the conscious learning.

Confirmation function stresses that learner has the upper hands to identify and correct. Meta-language function means that when producing the language, the learner realizes his own problems which the feedback system in the brain makes the learner to respond and correct.

Language acquisition is a bilateral interaction process in which the input and output are closely related. To cultivate the linguistic competence, the learners not only need to listen, but also need to open their mouths to speak and pick up their pens to write. In practice, learners can build up their language sense and perfect their communications, which are favorable conditions for the language study. The balance between language input and language output plays an import ant role in second language acquisition.Once we notice the balance betw een language input and output,we will become more efficient in language learning .If we ignore this balance, especially only focus on language input,most of us are incapable in oral s peaking and writing.To sum up,teachers should adopt different kinds of te aching methods on the basis of the balance between language input and o utput,so that their students can have an all-round development capability i n second language acquisition.