《土木工程专业英语》陈瑛_邵永波主编_全文经典翻译

《土木工程专业英语》陈瑛_邵永波主编_全文经典翻译
《土木工程专业英语》陈瑛_邵永波主编_全文经典翻译

Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 结构力学

1.1 Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements系统结构和元素的分类和作用

1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 静定和超静定结构

1.3 Structural Dynamics 结构动力学

Chapter 2. Structural Material 土木工程材料

2.1 Materials for Concrete and Mix Proportion 砼材料及配比

2.2 Properties of Concrete 砼的性能

2.3 Steel Materials 钢材料

2.4 Structural Steel Shapes 型钢

Chapter 3. Structural Design concepts 结构设计

3.1 Load conditions and Load Paths 负载条件和加载路径

3.2 Limit State Design 极限状态设计

Chapter 4. Concrete Structure 钢筋混凝土结构

4.1 Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beam

钢筋混凝土梁的弯曲性能

4.2 Shear and Diagonal Tension in Reinforced Concrete Beam

钢筋混凝土梁的剪切和斜拉

4.3 Bond , Anchorage, and Development Length

连接,锚固,基本锚固长度

Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 结构力学

1.1 . Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements

系统结构和元素的分类和作用

Common rigid elements include beams, columns or struts, arches, flat plates, singly curved plates, and shells having a variety of different curvatures. Flexible elements include cables (straight and draped) and membranes(planar, singly curved, and doubly curved). In addition, there are a number of other types of structures that are derived from these elements(e.g, frames, trsses, geodesic domes, nets, etc. )(figure 1.1)

常见的刚性元件包括梁,柱,支撑,圆拱,平板,单向板弯曲面,具有不同的曲率的翘体。柔性元素包括电缆(直披)和膜结构(平面,单向板弯曲面,双曲面)。此外也有一些来自这些元素(如框架,桁架,测量短程线,网格等)

Frames 框架

The frame has rigid joints that are made between vertical and horizontal members. This joint rigidity imparts (给予) a measure of stability against lateral forces. In a framed system both beams and columns are bent or bowed(弯如弓的)as a consequence of the action of the load on the structure.

框架的垂直和水平直接有刚性连接,这样的节点给予了一定程度上的稳定性抵抗侧向作用力。在一个框架的系统张,梁和柱的弯曲或弓形弯如弓的形状都是结构上负载的作用效果。

Trusses 桁架

Trusses are structural members made by assembling short, straight members into triangulated patterns. The resultant (组合的, 合成的)structure is rigid as a result of the exact (精确的) way the individual line elements are positioned relative to one another. Some patterns (e.g. a pattern of squares rather than triangles) do not necessarily yield a structure that is rigid (unless joints are treated in the same way as in framed structures). A truss composed of discrete elements is bent in an overall way under the action of an applied transverse loading in much the same way that a beam is bent. Individual truss members, however, are not subject to bending but are only either compressed or pulled upon. 桁架结构构件是通过短直杆组装成三角形的图案。组合的结果的精确方式相对于彼此的位置的各行元素的结构是

刚性的。不一定会产生某些刚性的模型(例如,一个模型的平方不一定是三角形图案)(除非在框架结构中相同的处理)。由分立元件组成的桁架在大致相同的方式,弯曲梁所施加的横向载荷的作用下,在一个整体方式的弯曲。个人桁架构件,不能弯曲只能压缩或拉后。

Arches拱门

An arch is a curved, line-forming structural member that spans between two points. The exact shape of the curve and the nature of the loading are critical determinants as to whether the resultant assembly is stable. When shapes are formed by simply stacking rigid block elements, the resultant structure is functional and stable only when the action of the load is to induce in-plane forces that cause the structure to compress uniformly. Structures of this type cannot carry loads that induce elongations or any pronounced type of bowing in the member (the blocks simply pull apart and failure occurs). The strength of a block structure is due exclusively to the positioning of individual elements, since blocks are typically either simply rested one on another or mortared together. The positioning is, in turn, dependent on the exact type of loading involved. The resultant structure is thus rigid only under very particular circumstances.

圆拱一个拱形的弯曲线形成的结构部件,两点之间的跨越。曲线的精确性质和性质是所得到的组件是否是稳定的关键决定因素。当通过简单地堆叠刚性块体元件的形状形成的结构是功能性的和稳定的,又有当负载的作用是诱导面内的力量时才导致结构的均匀压缩。这种类型的结构不能进行负载诱导伸长或任何明显的拉伸(只需拉开块发生故障)。嵌段结构的强度是由于单个元素导致的,由于块通常是在躺在另一个上或砂浆砌在一起。只有在非常特殊的情况下,所得到的的结构才是刚性的。

The rigid arch is frequently used in modern building. It is curved similarly to block arches but is made of one continuous piece of deformed rigid material. If rigid arches are properly shaped, they can carry a load to supports while being subject only to axial compression, and no bending occurs. The rigid arch is better able to carry variations in the design loading than is its block counterpart made of individual pieces. Many types of rigid arches exist and are often characterized by their support conditions (fixed, two-hinged, three-hinged).

现代建筑中常用的刚性拱,同样是弯曲的阻止拱,但它是由一块连续变形的刚性材料制成的。如果制成刚性拱的形状,它们可以承受的负载支座仅受轴向压缩的同时并没有发生弯曲。刚性拱是能够更好地进行变化的块对应的单件制成的。存在许多类型的刚性拱的特点常常是它们的支持条件(固定,双绞链、三铰链)

Walls and Plates墙板

Walls and flat plates are rigid surface-forming structures. A load-bearing wall can typically carry both vertical loads and lateral loads (wind, earthquake) along its length. Resistance to out-of-plane forces in block walls is marginal. A flat plate is typically used horizontally and carries loads by bending to its supports. Plate structures are normally made of reinforced concrete or steel.

墙板墙壁和平板表面形成的结构是刚性的。承重墙通常可以进行沿其长度的垂直荷载和侧向荷载(风。地震)。砌块墙的平面的抵抗力是微不足道的。通常用于平板进行水平和通过弯曲其支持负载。板结构通常是由钢筋混凝土或刚组成的。

Horizontal plates can also be made by assembling patterns of short, rigid line elements. Three-dimensional triangulation schemes are used to impart stiffness to the resultant assembly.

水平板也可以通过组装短,刚性线的模式。三维三角形测量设计是用来赋予所得到的组件的刚度的。

Long, narrow rigid plates can also be joined along their long edges and used to span horizontally in beam-like fashion. These structures, called folded plates, have the potential for spanning fairly large distances.

长,狭窄的刚性板也可以加入和使用到时尚的水平跨越梁中。这些结构,被称为折叠的板,有可能跨越相当大的距离。

Cylindrical Shells and Vaults 柱形壳和拱顶

Cylindrical barrel shells and vaults are examples of singly curved-plate structure. A barrel shell spans longitudinally such that the curve is perpendicular to the direction of the span. When fairly long, a barrel shell behaves much like a beam with a curved cross section. Barrel shells are invariably

made of rigid materials (e.g., reinforced concrete or steel). A vault, by contrast, is a singly curved structure that spans transversely. A vault can be conceived of as basically a continuous arch.

柱形壳和拱顶圆柱型的筒和拱顶都是单独的弧形板式结构的例子。一个镜筒外壳跨越纵向曲线垂直的方向的弧度。当足够长的时候,每筒外壳采用的弧形截面梁很像。筒,炮弹等都提出了硬质材料(如钢筋混凝土或钢)。相反的,储藏库是一个单独的弧形结构,横向跨越。储藏库可以设想基本是是一个连续的拱。

Spherical Shells and Domes球壳和圆顶

A wide variety of doubly curved surface structures are in use .These include structures that are portions of spheres and those that form warped surface (e.g , the hyperbolic paraboloid ). The number of shapes possible is actually boundless. Probably the most common doubly curved structures is the spherical shell. It is convenient to think of this structure as a rotated arch. This analogy, however, is actually misleading with respect to how the structure actually carries loads because of the fact that loadings include circumferential forces in spherical shells which do not exist in arches. Domed structures can be made of stacked blocks or a continuous rigid material (reinforced concrete). Shells and domes are very efficient structures capable of spanning large distances using a minimum of material.

球形壳各种各样的双曲面结构都在使用中,这些包括球部和它所形成的扭曲的表面的结构(例如,双曲抛物线)。一些可能的形状实际上是无限的。也许最常见的双曲面结构是球壳。它认为这种结构的旋转拱很方便。但是,这个比喻实际上是误导了结构是如何进行负载的。因为,载荷包括切线力在球壳中不存在拱门。圆顶结构,可以由层叠块或连续的刚性材料(钢筋混凝土)组成。壳顶结构是非常有效的,它能够用最少的材料覆盖很大的距离。

Cables(索)

Cables are flexible structural elements. The shape they assume (take on )under a loading depends on the nature and magnitude of the load. When a cable is simple pulled on at either end, it assumes a straight shape. This type of cable is often called a tie-rod.When a cable is used to span between two points and carry an external point load or series of point loads, it deforms into a shape made up of a series of straight-line segments. When a continuous load (distributed load,)is carried, the cable deforms into a continuously curving shape. The self –weight of the cable itself produces such a catenary curve Suspension cables can be used to span extremely large distances

索索是可弯曲的结构元件。它们呈现加载的形状取决于负载的性质和严重程度。当很简单地拉索的任一端时,它假定了直板造型。这种类型的索通常被称为转向横拉杆。当索用于跨越两个点之间并进行外部负载或一系列的点荷载,变形的形状由一系列的直线段。当进行连续负载(分布荷载),索变形成了连续弯曲的形状。索本身的自重产生这样的悬链线,吊索可用于跨越非常大的距离。

Membranes, Tents, and Nets 膜、帐篷、网

A membrane is a thin, flexible sheet. A common tent is made of membranes surfaces. Both simple and complex forms can be created using membranes. For surfaces of double curvature, such as a spherical surface, however, the actual surface would have to be made as an assembly of much smaller segments, since most membranes are typically available only in flat sheets. A further implication of using a flexible membrane to create the surface is that it either has to be suspended with the convex side pointing downward or, if used with the convex side pointing upward, supplemented by some mechanism to its shape. Pneumatic, or air-inflated, structures. The shape of the membrane is maintained by the internal air pressure inside the structure. Another mechanism is to apply external jacking forces that stretch the membrane into the desired shape. Various stressed-skin structures are of this general type. The need to pretension the skin, however, imposes various limitations on the shape that can be formed. Spherical surfaces, for example, are very difficult to pretension by external jacking forces, while others, such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, can be handled with comparative ease.

膜、帐篷、网是一个薄的膜,柔性板,一个常见的帐篷是由膜表面构成的。既简单又复杂的形式可以创建使用膜。对于双曲率,如球面的表面。但是实际的表面将要作为一个组件的更小的段,因为大多数膜通常仅适用于平板。用一柔性膜片创建表面的再一个含义是,它要么必须暂停与凸侧朝向下方,或者,如果使用凸侧朝上,通过一些机制来补充其形状。充气式膜结构的膜形状是由内部的结构的内部气压。另一种机制是应用外部抬升力,拉

伸膜成所需的形状。强调皮肤的各种结构的这种通用类型,然而,需要预拉伸皮肤施加各种条件的限制,可以形成的形状。球的表面,是非常困难的外部顶力,但是其他的,如双曲抛物面可以比较容易处理。

Nets are very analogous to membrane skins. By allowing the mesh opening to vary as needed, a wide variety of surface shapes can be formed. An advantage of using crossed cables is that the positioning of the cables mitigates fluttering due to wind suctions and pressures. In addition, tension forces are typically induced into the cables by jacking devices, so that the whole surface is turned into a type of stretched skin. This also gives the roof stability and resistance to flutter.

网是非常类似的膜皮,通过使网眼根据需要进行变化,各种各样的表面形状可以形成。使用交叉索的一个优点是,使索的定位减轻由于风的吸力和压力产生的飘动。此外,张力通常诱导索顶装置,使整个表面变成一种类型的伸展。这也给了顶板稳定性和抗颤性。

1.2

2.Basic Issues in the Analysis and Design of Structures

结构分析与设计中的基本问题

1 Fundamental Structural Phenomena1. 基本结构现象

Structure components could break apart or deform badly. The forces causing overturning or collapse come from the specific environmental (e.g., wind, earthquakes, occupancies )or from the self-weight of the form itself. These same applied loadings produce internal force in a structure that stress the material used and may cause it to fail or deform. There are several fundamental ways in which failure can occur.

结构组件可以破坏或严重变形,由力的作用造成的倾覆或来自特定的环境(例如,风,地震,占用)再或者是本身的自重的形式。这些相同的应用负荷产生的内力在一个结构中使用的材料可能会导致其变形或失败。有几个基本的方法,其中可能会发生故障。

A first set of concerns deals with the overall stability of a work. As a whole unit, a structure might overturn, slide, or twist about its base, particularly when subjected to horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces. Sliding under its own weight. Overturning or twisting need not be caused only by horizontally acting forces. A work might simply be out of balance under its own self-weight and overturning. The use of wide, rigid foundations helps prevent overturning, as does the use of special foundation elements such as piles capable of carrying tension forces.

第一组关注处理工作的整体稳定性。作为一个整体单元,结构可能会倾覆,滑移,扭转。尤其是当风或地震的水平作用时,其自身重量下滑,翻倒或扭转不只是引起水平作用力。在自身的重量和倾覆的作用下,可能只是失去了平衡。使用宽,刚性的基础,有助于防止倾覆,不使用例如能够携带张力桩的特殊要数。

A second set of concerns deals with internal, or relational, stability. If the parts of a structure are not properly arranged in space or interconnected appropriately, an entire assembly(组装)can collapse internally. Collapses of this type invariably involve large relative movements within the structure itself. Assemblies may be internally stable under one loading condition and unstable under another. Horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces, in particular, cause collapses of this kind. There are several basic mechanisms-walls, frame action, cross bracing –for making an assembly internally stable.

第二组关于处理内部关系稳定。如果有部分的结构空间组合不合理,或真个组装不合理,可以适当地相互连接,内部折叠。这种类型导致的坍塌总是涉及大型结构本身的相对运动。组件可能是一个装载条件下内部稳定和不稳定的根据项。水平因素风或地震尤其会使其坍塌。有几个基本的机制墙壁,框架动作,交叉支撑组件的内部稳定。

A third set of concerns deals with the strength and stiffness of constituent elements.There are many structure issues that revolve around the strength of component parts of a structure. These failures, which may or may not lead to total collapse, may be caused by excessive tension, compression, bending, shear, torsional, bearing forces, or deformations that are developed internally in the structure as a consequence of the applied loadings. Associated with each force state are internal stresses that actually exist within the fabric of the material itself. By carefully designing components in response

to the force state present, the actual stresses developed in the components can be controlled to safe levels.

第三组的关注处理的强度和刚度的结构元素。很多结构围绕一个结构组成部分的强度问题。这些故障可能会导致全面崩溃,可能是由于过度紧张,压缩,弯曲,剪切,扭转,轴承,或变形,在结构内部开发的应用负荷的后果。每个受力状态,实际上存在于物质材料本身的内应力。通过仔细地设计组件的受力状态,开发组件的实际应力可以被控制到安全水平。

2. Structural Stability结构稳定性

A Fundamental consideration in designing a structure is that of assuring its stability under any type of possible loading condition. All structures undergo some shape changes under load.In a stable structure deformations induced by the action of the load tend to restore the structure to its original shape after the load has been removed. In an unstable structure, the deformations induced by a load are typically massive and often tend to continue increasing as long as the load is applied. An unstable structure does not generate internal forces that tend to restore the structure to its original configuration. Unstable structures quite often collapse completely and instantaneously as a load is applied to them. It is the fundamental responsibility of the structural designer to assure that a proposed structure does indeed form a stable configuration.

设计结构的最基本需要考虑的问题,是任何类型的可能负载的条件下确保其稳定性。所有的结构进行一些稳定结构的变形引起的负载的作用下的形状变化,趋向于回访到初始形状的结构已经被删除。在不稳定的结构中,由负载引起的变形通常是大规模的,并且常常施加载荷时,只要继续增加。一个不稳定的结构不会产生内部的力量,往往恢复到原来的配置结构。经常不稳定结构完全折叠和瞬间作为负载被施加到它们身上。它的基本结构设计师的责任,以确保建议的结构确实形成一个稳定的配置。

Stability is a crucial issue in the design of structures that are assemblies of discrete elements. For example, the post-and-beam structure illustrated in figure 1.2a is apparently stable. Any horizontal force, however, tends to cause deformations of the type indicated in figure 1.2b. clearly, the structure has no capacity to resist horizontal load, nor does it have any mechanism that tends to restore it to its initial shape after the horizontal load is removed. The large changes in angle that occur between members characterize an unstable structure that is beginning to collapse. This particular structure will collapse almost instantaneously under load. Consequently, this particular pattern of members is referred to as a collapse mechanism.

稳定是一个至关重要的问题,在设计分立元件的组件结构。例如,梁柱结构示意图1.2a所示显然是稳定的。然而,在任何水平方向的力往往会造成在图1.2b的不同变形。结构清楚,有没有能力抵抗水平荷载,也没有任何机制,倾向于恢复到其初始形状,水平荷载后删除。出现大的变化角度特征不稳定的结构开始崩溃。这种特殊的结构将在负载下瞬间崩溃。因此,这个特定的图案被称为“崩溃机制”

There are really only a few fundamental ways of converting a self-standing structure of the general type shown in figure 1.2a fron an unstable to a stable configuration. These are illustarated in figure 1.2d. the first is to add a diagonal member to the structure. The structure cannot now undergo the parallelogram indicated in figure 1,2b without a dramatic release in the length of the diagonal member (this would not occur if the diagonal were adequately sized to take the forces involved). Another method used to assure stability is through shear walls. These are rigid planar surface elements that inherently resist shape changes of the type illustrated. A reinforced concrete or masonry wall can be used as a shear wall. Either a full or a partial wall can be used (the required extent of a partial wall depends on the magnitudes of the forces involved). A final method used to achieve stability is through stopping the large angular changes between members that are associated with collapse by assuring that the nature of the nature of the connections between members is such that their angular relationship remains a constant value under any loading. This is done by making a rigid joint between members. This is a very common form of joint.

真的只有一项独立的通用型数字 1.2a不稳定的一个稳定的配置结构转换的一些基本方法。这些在图1.2d

上。成为第一个是增加一个对角构件的结构。结构现在不能接受对角线的长度(如果对角线有足够大的力量,这种情况不会发生)没有一个戏剧性的释放b图1,2所示的平行四边形。用来保证稳定性的另一种方法是通过剪力墙。这些平面的表面是刚性的元素本质上所示类型的抗蚀剂形状的变化。可用于钢筋混凝土或砖石墙作为剪力墙。完整或部分的壁可用于(部分壁所需的程度上依赖于所涉及的力的大小)。用于实现稳定的最后一种方法是通过停止大角度变化,确保结构之间的连接的性质就是这样原理的性质,它们的角的关系仍然是一个恒定值。这是通过成员之间的刚性连接,是一个非常普遍的形式的联合。

There are, of course, variants on these basic methods of assuring stability. Still most structures composed of discrete elements rely on one or the other of these basic approaches for stability. More than one approach can be used in a structure (e.g. a structure having both rigid joints and a diagonal), but a measure of redundancy is obviously involved.

当然,在这些基本的方法保证稳定的变体。仍然由分立元件组成的结构依赖于一个或另一个稳定这两种基本方法。在一个结构中,可以使用一个以上的方法(例如,具有两个刚性接头和对角线结构),但显然这涉及一定程度的冗余。

1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

静定和超静定结构

1.2Determinate and Indeterminate Structures静定与超静定结构

1.2.1 Statically Determinate Structures超静定结构

Structures are said to be statically determinate when the forces and reactions produced by a given loading can be calculated using only the equations of equilibrium. The simply supported beam shown in Figure 1.3 is statically determinate. We can solve for the three unknown reactions using the equations of equilibrium and then calculate the internal forces such as bending moment, shear force, and axial force at any given location along the length of the beam.

结构被称为静定时的力和反应的一个给定的荷载产生可以只使用平衡方程计算。简支梁在图1.3所示是静定。我们可以解决三未知的反应,利用平衡方程,然后计算等内力弯矩,剪切力,和在任何给定的位置沿梁的长度的轴向力。

1.2.3 Force Method 力法

The force method (also called the flexibility method) is used to calculate internal forces and reactions in statically indeterminate structures due to loads and imposed deformations.

力法(又称弹性法)是用来计算内力和反应静不定结构因荷载和施加变形。

在力法的步骤

The steps in the force method在力法的步骤

(1)Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the structure. Parameter n will be used to denote the degree of indeterminacy.

(1)确定静不定结构的程度。参数n可以用来表示不确定性的程度。

(2) Transform the structure into a statically determinate system by releasing a number of statical constraints equal to the degree of statical indeterminacy,n. This is accomplished by

releasing external support conditions

creating internal hinges.

The system thus formed is called the primary system. Number the released constraints from 1 to n.

(2)通过释放一些静态约束等于静不定度的结构转化为静定系统,这是通过

释放外部支持条件,创建内部铰链。由此形成的系统称为原发性系统。编号从1到N的释放的约束(3)For a given released constraint j, introduce an unknown redundant force Xj corresponding to the type and direction of the released constraint.

(3)基本体系沿多余未知力方向的位移应与原结构位移相同

(4)Apply the given loading or imposed deformation to the primary system. Calculate displacements due to the given loading at each of the released constraints in the primary system. These displacements are called Δ1P , Δ2P , ΔnP .., .

(4)将给定的加载或主系统的附加变形。计算的位移由于在原系统在每个发布约束给定载荷。这些位移被称为Δ1P,2PΔ,ΔNP ..,

(5)For a given released constraint j, apply a unit load Xj =1 to the primary system. Calculate displacements due to Xj =1 at each of the released constraints in the primary system. These displacements are called

(5)对于一个给定的发布约束J,申请单位负载XJ = 1到主系统。计算的位移由于XJ = 1在每个释放的约

束在主系统。这些位移被称为,,

(6)Solve for redundant forces X1 through Xn by imposing the compatibility conditions of the original structure.These conditions transform the primary system back to the original structure by finding the combination of redundant forces that make displacement at each of the released constraints equal to zero.The conditions are expressed mathematically as follow

This is a system of n linear equations in n unknows,The displacements arw all know.The unknow forces are Xj.It can thus be seen that the name of force method was given to this method because its primary computational task is to calculate unknown forces,i.e.,the redundant forces X1 through Xn.

(6)解决多余力X1到XN利用原结构的相容性条件。这些条件将原系统回到原来的结构的发现使位移在每个发布约束等于零冗余力量的结合。条件的数学表达如下

这是一个N未知数的线性方程系统,位移ARW都知道。未知的力量是XJ。由此可以看出,力方法的名称分配给该方法由于其计算的基本任务是计算未知的力量,即,多余的力X1到Xn。

(7)Calculate force S at a given location in the structure using the following combination

where quantities Xj have been calculated from the n by n system of equations given in Step6,S0 is the force due to the given load or imposed deformation in the primary system,and X0 is the force due to Xj applied to the primary system.Force S can be bending moment,shear,axial force,or reaction. (7)计算力的结构中在某一位置使用下列组合

在大量XJ已经从n的n系统方程计算了六,S0力是由于负载或施加的变形的主要系统,和x0是力由于XJ施加到主系统。力的可弯曲,剪切,轴向力,或反应。

1.2.4The classical Displacement Method 经典的位移的方法

The force method is a method for calculating the response of statically indeterminate strures by which the unknows are force quantities(the redundant force X1,X2...,Xn)and the equations used to solve for the unknows are based on geometrical conditions (compatibility conditions at the location of each redundant force).It is possible to consider an analogous method for calculating the response of statically indeterminate structures in which the unknowns are displacement quantities and the equations use to solve for the unknowns are based on statical conditions (equilibrium conditions).

力法是一种计算响应静不定结构的未知力量(多余力的X1,X2……,xn)和方程来求解未知量是基于几何条件(在每一个多余的力的位置的相容性条件)。可以考虑类似的方法计算响应的静不定结构的未知位移量和方程求解的未知数是使用基于静态条件下(平衡条件)。

the method is referred to as the classical displacement method.It is helpful to outline the major elements of the method.It is assumed that the joints of the structure do not undergo translational displacement.

该方法被称为传统的位移法。它有助于轮廓的方法的主要元素。它是假定的结构节点不发生平动位移。

(1)For a given structure and loading,consider the joints to be fully fixed against rotation

(1)对于一个给定的结构和加载,考虑关节得到充分固定在旋转

(2)Calculate the moments in each member of the structure due to the given loads,assuming full fixity at joints.These moments are called fixed-end moments.

(2)计算结构的每一成员由于负载的时刻,假设固定节点。这些时刻被称为固定端弯矩。

(3)Calculate the moments iat the ends of each member due to unit displacements of the joints. (3)计算时刻的IAT的每一个成员由于接头的两端单元位移。

(4)Express the total moment at each end of a given member as the sum of the fixed-end moments and the product of unknown joint displacements times the moments produced by unit joint displacements calculated in Step 3.

(4)表示的总的时刻在一给定成员每一端为固定端的时刻和未知节点位移时间单元节点位移在步骤3中计算产生的矩的乘积的总和。

(5) Generate an equation of moment equilibrium at each joint.

(5)产生在各关节的力矩平衡方程。

(6) Solve the system of equations for the unknown joint displacements.

(6)求解未知节点位移方程组。

(7) Calculate the member end moments using the expressions derived in Step 4 and the values of joint displacements calculated in Step 6.

(7)使用在步骤4中得到表达和节点位移在步骤6中计算值的构件端弯矩计算。

(8)Calculate all remaining forces in the structure (shear forces and axial forces).

(8)计算结构中的所有剩余的部队(剪力和轴力)。

Force method can solve all statically indeterminate structures. computational complexity prohibitive for structures with more than three unknown forces.

力的方法可以解决所有的静不定结构,计算的复杂性,高昂的结构与三多个未知的力量。

Classical displacement method allows a solution based on a member-by-member procedure, rather than one that requires consideration of the structure as a whole;

based on the pre-solution of standard cases of intermediate 媒介物 load and displacement

reduce the number of unknowns in a given solution.

传统的位移法允许基于构件的构件程序的解决方案,而不是一个需要考虑的结构作为一个整体;基于中间媒介物载荷与位移的标准的情况下,预解在一个给定的溶液减少未知数的个数

1.2.5Moment Distribution Method 力矩分配法

The moment distribution method is used for statically indeterminate beams and frames by simple hand calculations. This is basically an iterative (迭代的) process. The procedure involves artificially restraining temporarily all the joints against rotation and writing down the fixed end moments for all the members. The joints are then released one by one in succession 连续. At each released joint the unbalanced moments are distributed to all the ends of the members meeting at that joint.

力矩分配法用于静不定梁和框架通过简单的手工计算。这基本上是一个迭代过程(迭代的)。该过程涉及人为地抑制暂时所有接头和旋转的固定端的时刻写下所有的成员。接头然后释放一个个相继连续。在每个节点不平衡弯矩释放在联合分布于会员大会结束一切。

A certain fraction of these distributed moments are carried over to the far ends of members. The released joint is again restrained temporarily before proceeding to the next joint. The same set of operations are carried out at each joint till all the joints are completed. This completes one cycle of operations. The process is repeated a number of times or cycles till the values obtained are within the desired accuracy.

一定比例的这些分布的矩进行了构件的远端。释放接头又得到了暂时的抑制后再进行下一节。一组相同的操作在每个节点到所有节点进行完成。这就完成了一个周期的操作。这个过程是重复的次数或周期直到得到的值是在所需的精度。

Figure 1.5 indicates a basic problem of moment distribution.The question is,given a unit moment applied to jointA,what moments are produced in each of the members.One way to proceed is to solve the problem for a unit joint rotation andthen scale the resulting solution for a unit moment.For a unit rotation the moment in each member at joint A is just its stiffness kI=(4EI/L)i.The(1.2.3公式) which is called the joint stiffness.For anapplied unit moment this solution scales so that the moment in each meber at joint A is(1.2.4公式) this is called the distribution factor of member i at join A . That is member distribution factor=member stiffness/joint stiffness

图1.5显示的弯矩分布的一个基本问题。问题是,给定一个适用于节点及单元的时刻,什么时刻都在每一成员的产生。的方式来进行,以解决单位共同旋转而产生的解决方案规模单位的时刻的问题。对一个单位在每个旋转力矩会员在关节是其刚度ki=(4ei/L)——(1.2.3公式),称为关节僵硬。因为从单元转动这个解决方案的尺度,每个成员在关节力矩(1.2.4公式)这就是所谓的分布因子的成员在加入我。这是成员的分配系数=构件刚度/关节僵硬

The problem inFigure 1.6 can be solved.First, the center joint is fixed (the rotation is set to zero ) which gives the so- called fixed-end moment solution for beam on the right and no response in the beam on the left.This solution is valid except that it requires an external moment to be applied to the center joint.the final solution is constructed by releasing or balancing the center joint which is equivalent to applying a clockwsie moment of wl2/12 to this https://www.360docs.net/doc/d67875404.html,ing the idea of distribution and carry over,the solution is completed in this figure.Note that the sign convention used implies that a counter-clocwise moment on the end of a member is positive.Care must then be exercised in drawing the final moment diagram which uses a different a different sign covention.

图1.6的问题是可以解决的。第一,中心节点是固定的(旋转设置为零),梁的右侧和左侧梁没有反应了,所谓的固定端弯矩的解决方案。该方案是有效的,它除了需要应用于中心joint.the最终解的外部力矩是通过释放或平衡中心联合相当于应用wl2 / 12 clockwsie时刻本联合建造。使用分布式的思想和携带,解决的办法是在图中完成。注意,使用的符号规定意味着在一个部件的端clocwise时刻计数器是积极的。然后,必须使用不同的符号绘制不同的最后一刻图执行公约。

1.3Structural Dynamics 结构动力学;

1.3.1Equations of Motion for Linear Single-Degree-of –Freedom 运动方程的线性单自由度

The essential physical properties of a linearly elastic structural system subjected to external dynamic loading are its mass,stiffness properties,and energy absorption capability or damping.The principle of dynamic analysis may be illustrated by cinsidering a simple single-storey structure as shown in Figure1.7.The structure is subjected to a time-varying force f(t).k is the spring cinstant that relates the lateral storey deflection x to the storey shear force,and he dash pot relates the damping force to the velocity by a damping coefficient c.If the mass,m,is assumed to concentrate at the beam,the structure becomes a single-degree-of -freedom (SDOF)system.The equation of motion of the system may be written as(1.3.1公式).

一个线性弹性结构体系进行了外部动力荷载的基本物理特性是它的质量,刚度,和能量吸收能力或阻尼。动态分析的原理,可以通过一个简单的单层结构,考虑在figure1.7.the结构显示了受到时变力F(t)。K是弹簧常数,涉及横向偏转X层的层高的剪切力,和他锅涉及阻尼力速度的阻尼系数C。如果质量,m,是假设集中在梁,结构成为一个单自由度(SDOF)系统的运动方程可系统。被写为(1.3.1公式)。

If a stucture is subjected to a sinusoidal motion such as a ground acceleration of xg=fsinwft,it will oscillate and after some time the motion of the structure will reach a steady state,For example,the equation of motion due to the ground acceleration(1.3.2公式)where 2sw=c/m and w2=k/m,w is the resonate natural frequency of the system.

如果一个结构进行正弦运动如XG = fsinwft地面加速度,它将振荡,经过一段时间的结构的运动会达到一个稳定的状态,例如,由于地面加速度的运动方程(1.3.2公式)在2SW = C / M和W2 = K /M,W是共振系统的自然频率。

The solution to the above equation consists of two parts,the general solution and the particular solution,If the system is damped,oscillation corresponding to the general solution will decay with time,After some time,the motion will reach a steady state and the system will vibrate at a constant amplitude and frequency.This motion,which is called forced vibration,is described by the particular solution expressed as(1.3.3公式).Substituting Equation (1.3.3)into Equation (1.3.2),the displacement amplitude can be shown to be (1.3.4公式).

上述方程的解由两部分组成,一般的解决方案和特定的解决方案,如果系统的阻尼,以一般的解决方案对应的振荡会随时间衰减,一段时间后,运动会达到一个稳定状态,系统将在一个恒定的振幅和振动频率。这种运动,这是所谓的强迫振动,被表示为特定的解决方案描述(1.3.3公式)。代入方程(1.3.3)为方程(1.3.2),位移幅值可以是(1.3.4公式)。

When the dynamic force is applied at a frequency much lower than the natural frequency of the system(wf/w<<1),the response is quasi-static.The response is proportional to the stiffness of the structure,and the displacement amplitude is close to the static deflection.

当动态力施加在频率比系统的自然频率低得多(工作流/ w<<1),反应quasi-static.the响应对结构的刚度成正比,与位移幅值接近静挠度。

When the force is applied at a frequency much higher than the natural frequency(wf/w)>>1),the response is proportional to the mass of the structure.

当力施加在频率比自然频率高得多(工作流/ W)> > 1),响应于结构的质量成正比。

When the force is applied at a frequency close to the natural frequency,the displacement amplitude increases significantly.The condition at which wf/w=1 is known as resonance.

当力被施加在一个频率接近的固有频率,位移幅值明显增加。在该条件下工作流/ W = 1被称为共振。

1.3.2 Equations of Motion for Linear Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems对于线性多自由度系统的运动方程

In multiple degree systems,an independent differential equation of motion can be written for each degree of freedom.The nadal equations of a multiple degree system consisting of n degrees of freedom may be written as(1.3.5公式)where [m] is a symmetrical n*n matrix of mass,[c] is a symmetrical n*n matrix of damping coefficient,and {F(t)} is the force vector which is zero in the case of free vibration.

在多自由度系统,一个独立的运动微分方程可以为每个自由度写的。纳达尔方程的多自由度系统组成的n个自由度的可写为(1.3.5公式)在[ M ]是一个对称的n×n矩阵的质量,[C]是对称的N * n矩阵,阻尼系数,和{F(t)}力矢量是零的情况下自由振动。

Consider a system under free vibration without damping.The general solution of Equation(1.3.5) is assumed in the form of(1.3.6) where angular frequency w and phase angle o are common to all x' s.In this assumed solution,o and c1,c2,...,cn are the constants to be determined from the initial boundary

conditions of the motion and w is a characteristic value (eigenvalue) of the system.

考虑下一个无阻尼系统的自由振动方程的一般解。(1.3.5)的形式是在假定(最佳),角频率和相位角O是所有X的。常见的这种假设解,O和C1,C2,……,CN是从运动和W初始边界条件确定的常数是一个特征值(特征值)的系统。

Substituting Equation (1.3.6) into Equation (1.3.5) yields (1.3.7公式) where [k] and [m] are the n*n matrices,w2 is scalar,and {c} is the amplitude vector.For nontrivial solutions, solution to Equation (1.3.7) requires the determinant of {[k]-w2[m]}*{c}={0}.The expansion of the determinant yields a polynomial of n degree as a function of w2,the n roots of which are the eigenvalues w1,w2,Wn. (1.3.6)式代入公式(1.3.5)产量(1.3.7公式)其中[K]和[]是n * n的矩阵,W2是标量,{C }是振幅矢量。对于非平凡解,解决方程(1.3.7)要求的行列式{[K]-W2[M]} *{C}={0}。行列式的扩展产生一个n次多项式为W2的功能,其中N根的特征值W1,W2,Wn。

The resulting motion is a sum of n harmonic motions,each governed by the respective natural frequency w,written as (1.3.8公式).

由此产生的运动是一个总和的n次简谐运动,有各自的自然频率w,写成(1.3.8公式)。

2.1 Structural Material结构材料;

2.1.1 Materials for Concrete and Mix Proportions 混凝土材料及配比

Concrete is a mixture of aggregate,and often controlled amounts of entrained air,held together by a hardened paste made from cement and water.Although there are other kinds of cement,the word cement in common usage refers to as portland cement. A chemical reaction between the portland cement and water causes concrete to harden to a stone-like condition. This reaction is called hydration. Hydration gives off heat,known as the heat of hydration.Because hydration hardens concrete,freshly placed concrete submerged underwater will harden. When correctly proportioned,fresh concrete can be molded into nearly any size or shape. Upon hydration of the cement by- the water,concrete becomes stone-like in strength,durability, and hardness.

混凝土骨料的混合物,通常控制的夹带的空气的量,通过硬化浆体由水泥和水一起举行。虽然还有其他种类的水泥,在常见的词,指的是波特兰水泥的水泥。波特兰水泥和水之间的化学反应引起混凝土硬化的一块石头像条件。这个反应称为水化。水化发热,称为水化热。由于水化硬化混凝土,新浇混凝土水下会变硬。当比例正确,新鲜混凝土可以被塑造成几乎任何尺寸或形状。对水泥水化的水,石混凝土成为像强度,耐久性,和硬度。Portland cement. 波特兰水泥。

Portland cement is the most commonly used modern

hydraulic cement. In this case,the word hydraulic is the cement's characteristic

of holding aggregate together by using water or other low-viscosity fluids.

Portland cement is a carefully proportioned and specially processed chemical

combination of lime,silica,iron oxide,and alumina.

波特兰水泥是最常用的现代液压水泥。在这种情况下,这个词是水泥的特点的液压聚集在一起的控股通过使用水或其他低粘度液体。波特兰水泥是一种精心相称,专门加工化学结合石灰、硅、铁氧化物、氧化铝。

Water. 水。

Unless test or experience indicates that a particular water source is

satisfactory,water should be free from acids, alkalis,oils, and organic

impurities.

除非试验或经验表明一个特定的水源是令人满意的,水应该是免费的从酸、碱、油类、有机杂质。

Aggregate. 骨料。

Inert filler materials(usually sand and stone or gravel) make up between 60 and 80 percent of the volume of normal concrete. Aggregate is often washed when impurities are found that can retard cement hydration or deteriorate the concrete's quality. All aggregate is screened to ensure proper size gradation,because concrete differs from other cement-water-aggregate mixtures in the size of its Aggregate, 'the aggregate' s physical and chemical properies alse affect concrete properties aggregate size, shape, and grade influence the amount of water required. For example limestone aggregate requires more water than marble aggregate of similar size. Aggregate surface texture influences the hond between the aggregate and the cement paste. In properly mixed concrete ,the paste surrounds each aggregate particle and fills all spaces between the particles The elastic properties of the aggregate influence the elastic properties of the concrete and the paste’s resistance to shrinkage. Reactions between the cement paste and the aggregate can either improve or harm the bond between the two consequently,the concrete's quality

惰性填料材料(通常是沙子和石头或砾石)组成60 ~ 80%的普通混凝土的体积。聚合通常是当杂质洗发现可以延

缓水泥水化或恶化

混凝土的质量。所有骨料是筛选以确保适当的大小分级,因为混凝土不同于其他水泥水骨料混合物在大小它的骨料,骨料的物理和化学性能也将影响具体的属性集料尺寸,形状,和年级影响数量的水要求。例如石灰石骨料要求更多的水比大理石骨料大小相近的。骨料表面纹理影响本田

在聚合和水泥膏。在正确地拌混凝土,围绕每个骨料颗粒和粘贴填充粒子之间的所有空间弹性性能的总体影响的弹性性能混凝土和膏的抗收缩。反应之间的水泥粘贴和骨料可以改善或伤害他们的关系

因此,混凝土的质量

Admixtures. 外加剂。

Admixtures are added to the concrete mixture to accelerate or retard the initial set, improve workability, reduce water requirements, increase strength,improve durability,decrease permeability, and impart other properties.They usually cause a chemical reaction within the concrete.Admixtures admixtures are normally classified into accelerating admixture,set-retarding admixtures ,air-entraining ,pigments,agents,plasticizers,fly ash,silica fume,color pigments, and miscellaneous materials. Many admixtures fall into more than one classification.

外加剂的加入加速或延缓的初始设置,混凝土拌合物改善和易性,减少水的要求,增加强度,提高耐久性,降低渗透率,并赋予其它特性。他们通常会产生化学反应,在混凝土外加剂。外加剂通常分为速凝剂,缓凝外加剂,引气,颜料,剂,增塑剂,粉煤灰,硅粉,色素,杂项材料。许多外加剂陷入一个以上的分类。

2.1.2 desirable concrete property理想的混凝土的性能

1. Plastic Concrete 塑性混凝土

Plastic Concrete is a concrete in a relatively fluid state that is readily molded by hand,like a lump of modeling clay. A plastic mix keeps all the grains of sand and the pieces of gravel or stone encased and held in place. The degree of plasticity influences the quality and character of the finished product.

塑性混凝土是混凝土在相对流体状态,易于成型用手,像一块橡皮泥。塑料混合使砂的谷物

和碎石或石包裹和地点举行的程度.可塑性影响质量和成品的品质。

The workability of a concrete mix gives a measure of the ease with which fresh concrete can be placed and compacted. The concrete should flow reading into the form and go around and cover the reinforcement ,the mix should retain , its consistency and the aggregates should not segregate.A mix with hig workability is needed where sections are thin and/or reinforcement is complicated and congested.

混凝土混合物的加工性的容易性給出了一個衡量可以放置新鮮混凝土和壓實。混凝土流量讀數進入的形式和去走一走,覆蓋加固,組合應保留,它的一致性和總量不應segregate.A混合HIG加工性是必要的,其中部分是薄的和/或複雜的加固和擁擠。

The main factor affecting workability is the water content of the mix. Plasticizer will increase workability The size of aggregate, its grading and shape, the ratio of coarse to fine aggregate and the aggregate-to-cement ratio also affect workability to some degree.

影響加工性的主要因素是混合的水含量。增塑劑總大小將增加可操作性,其分級

形狀,粗到細集料和水泥的總比的比例也在一定程度上影響可操作性。

Hardened concrete is the end product of any concrete design.the essential

properties thati it must have are strength,durability ,and watertinghtness

硬化混凝土的任何具体的设计必不可少的最终产品,它必須是強度,耐用性和水密性

Strength. 强度。

the concrcte's ability io resist a load in compression, flexure or shear is a measure of its strength. Concrete strength is largely determined by the ratio of water to cement in the mixture and curing condition.

混凝土的抗压缩能力IO负载,弯曲或剪切是衡量其强度。混凝土的强度在很大程度上取决于水在混合水泥的配比和固化条件。

Durability. 耐久性。

Climate and weather affect durability . thus , the concrete's abilities to resist the effects of wind, frost ,snow,ice,abrasion,and the chemical reaction of soils or salts are a measure of its durability. as the water to cement ratio increases,durability decreases correspondingly

气候和天气影响耐久性。因此,本混凝土的抗风,霜,雪,冰,磨损的影响,和

土壤或盐的化学反应是衡量其耐久性。当水灰比的增大,耐久性降低相应

Durability should be a strong consideration for concrete structures expected to last longer than five years. Air-entrained concrete has improved freeze-that durability

耐久性应是一个重要的考虑混凝土结构的预期持续超过五年。加气混凝土提高了冻结耐久性

Watertightness. 水密性。

Tests show that the watertightness of a cement paste depends on the water to cement ratio and the extent of the chemical-reaction process between the cement and water. The watertightness of air-entrained concrete is superior to that of nonair-entrained concrete.

測試表明,水泥的防水貼取決於水與水泥之比和化學反應的程度之間的水泥和水的過程。空氣夾帶的水密性混凝土優越的夾帶nonair的混凝土。

The strength and deformation characteristics of concrete thus depend on the grade and type of cement,aggregates,admixtures,water to cement ratio, environmental conditions and curing. Plain concrete after preparation and placement needs curing to attain strength. The increase of strength with its age during curing is considered to be marginal after 28 days.

因此,混凝土的強度和變形特性取決於等級和種類的水泥,骨料,外加劑,水與水泥之比,環境條件和固化。普通混凝土製備後安置需要固化達到強度。強度的增加,其年齡

在固化過程中被認為是邊緣28天后。

Plain concrete is very good in compression but weak in tension. That is why steel is used as reinforcing material to make the composite sustainable in tension also.Plain concrete,thus when reinforced with steel bars in appropriate locations is known as reih forced concrete.

普通混凝土是很好的壓縮,但緊張弱。因此鋼被用作增強材料,以在拉伸的複合可持續也。普通混凝土,因此,當收服被迫與適當的鋼筋位置被稱為遏制強制式混凝土。

2.1.3 proportioning concrete mixtures配比混凝土混合物

the various components of a mix are proportioned so that the resulting concrete has adequate strength,proper workability for placing, and low cost. The third calls for use of the minimum amount of cement that will achieve adequate properties.

各个组成部分的混合比例是使所产生的混凝土具有足够的强度,适当可行放置,且成本低。使用的最小水泥用量,将获得足够的性能。

The two primary methods used to proportion a mix design are the trial-batch method and the absolute-volume method. Proportions of ingredients for concrete should be selected to make the most economical use of available materials that will produce concrete of the required workability, durability, and strength basic relationships already established and the laboratory tests provide guidance for optimum combinations, Recommended and typical mixes of concrete for various

types or classes of work will detcermine how to proprtion concrete mix, factors affecting this include: (l) water to cement ratio, (2) type andd size of aggregate (3) air or nonair-entrained concrete, and (4) slump of the mix.

比例混合设计使用的两种主要方法是审批方法和绝对体积法。混凝土的配料比例应选择使现有材料的最经济的使用将生产所需的加工性,耐久性混凝土,强度基本已经建立的关系与实验指导最佳组合,推荐和各种具体的典型的混合工作类型或类将detcermine如何比混凝土配合比,因素影响包括:(1)的水灰比,(2)骨料的类型和大小(3)或空气夹带和nonair混凝土,(4)混合料的坍落度。

The water to cement ratio is determined by the strength, durability,and

watertightness requirements of the hardened concrete. Strength, durability and watertightness are usually specified by the structural-design engineer, but a tentative mix proportion can be determined from knowledge of a prior job 。Always remember that a change in the water to cement ratio changes the characteristics of the hardened concrete. In addition to the water required for hydartion, water is needed for wetting the surface of the aggregate. As water is added, the plasticity and the fluidity of the mix increase (i. e. , its workability improves), but the strength decreases because of the larger volume of voids created by the free water.

水灰比的确定的强度,耐久性,和硬化的混凝土的水密性要求。强度,耐久性,水密性通常是由结构设计工程师指定,但初步配合比可以从现有的工作知识确定永远记住,在换水灰比的变化硬化的混凝土的特性。此外,所需的hydartion,水是需要的润湿表面的总和。由于水增加,塑性和混合增加流动性(即,其和易性提高),但强度下降,因为空隙体积较大所产生的游离水。

The better the gradation of the aggregate, i. e. the smaller of the volume of voids, the less cement paste is needed to fill these voids. Fine aggregates are used to fill the spaces between the coarse aggregate particles and to increase the workability of the mix. Aggregate that does not have a large grading gap nor an excess of any size gives a smooth grading curve produces the best mix.

骨料的级配越好,即体积更小空隙,减少水泥浆体需要填补这些空隙。细骨料的使用填充粗集料颗粒之间的空间和增加组合的加工性。总没有一个大的等级差距也不是超出尺寸提供一个平滑的级配曲线产生最好的组合。

The maximum size of coarse aggregate that produces concrete of maxi strength for a given cement content depends upon the aggregate source as well as the aggregate shape and grading; thus, in most cases, a decrease will take place in the overall cost. The larger the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, the less paste (Water, cement and usually entrained air) that is required for a given concrete quality. The maximum size of aggregate should not exceed one-fifth the minimum dimension of the member or three-fourths the space between reinforcing bars. For pavement or floor slabs, the maximum Size of aggregate should not exceed one-third the slab thickness

粗骨料产生的对于一个给定的水泥含量最大强度混凝土的最大大小取决于骨料来源以及骨料形状和分级;因此,在大多数情况下,减少将在总成本。较大的粗骨料的最大尺寸,不酱(水,水泥和通常夹带的空气),对于一个给定的混凝土质量要求。骨料的最大尺寸不超过五分之一的最小尺寸的成员或四分之三钢筋之间的空间。路面或水泥板,骨料的最大尺寸不应超过三分之一的板坯厚度

1.3 Structural Dynamics 结构动力学

Chapter 2. Structural Material 土木工程材料

2.1 Materials for Concrete and Mix Proportion 砼材料及配比

2.2 Properties of Concrete 砼的性能

2.2.1 compressive strength 抗压强度

1. cube compressive strength 立方体抗压强度

the cube compressive strength of the concrete,f,is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength of 150mm size cubes tested at 28 days. Figure 2.1shows an idealized normal distribution of the values of compressive strength for a sizeable number of test cubes. (第一题答案大概在这)The horizontal axis represents the values of compressive strength. This is also termed as frequency. The average of the values of compressive strength(mean strength)is represented as f. the characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. The value of the normal distribution.第二题答案大概在这) 立方体抗压强度的混凝土,楼给出为150mm的尺寸在28天测试的多维数据集的特征抗压强度。图2.1显示了一个理想化的常态分布相当数量的立方体试块的抗压强度值。横轴表示抗压强度的值。这也被称为频率。抗压强度的值的平均值(平均强度)表示为f。特征强度被定义为混凝土的强度不超过5%的测试结果低于该预计将下降。常态分布的值。

Concrete is graded on the basis of its characteristic compressive strength and expressed in MPa. The grades are designated by one letter C and a number from 15 to 18 indicating the characteristic strength may be different in different countries.

混凝土的基础上,其特征抗压强度分级,以MPa表示。成绩指定一个字母“C”和一个数字从15到18,表明特征强度可能在不同的国家是不同的。

2. prismatic compressive strength棱柱抗压强度

the prismatic compressive strength of concrete is close to the axial compressive strength of concrete in column. Prismatic specimens with a height-to-width aspect ratio of 3 to 4 are adopted.

的棱柱形的混凝土的抗压强度是混凝土柱的轴心抗压强度。的高度与宽度的纵横比为3?4的棱柱形样品通过。

2.2.2 tensile strength 抗拉强度

the tensile strength of concrete can be expressed as follows;

混凝土的拉伸强度可以表示如下;

1 .axial tensile strength 轴向抗拉强度

it is measured by testing prismatic specimens under direct tension .there are considerable difficulties in determining the true tensile strength of concrete . minor misalignment and stress concentration in the graping devices are apt to mar the result.

它是测量,由测试棱柱标本的直接拉伸下,有相当大的困难,确定真正的混凝土抗拉强度。轻微的未对准和应力集中在graping装置容易擦伤的结果。

The following expression gives an extimation of axial tensile strength of concrete from its characteristic cube compressive strength.

下面的表达式给出其特征立方体抗压强度混凝土轴向拉伸强度的DOA估计。

2.splitting tensile strength劈裂抗拉强度

the result of split-cube test is a measure of the tensile strength of concrete ,a 150mm

concrete cube, the same as the one used for cube compressive test ,is inserted in a compression testing machine. Pads are inserted between the compression platens of the machine and the cube to equalize and distribute the pressure. It can be shown that in an elastic cube so loaded, a nearly uniform tensile stress of magnitude f=2p/ exists at the right angle to the plane of loading application, correspondingly, such cube, when tested, splits into two halves along that plane, at a stress f that can be computed from the equation f ,where P is the applied compressive load at failure,and a is the length of cube.(第四题答案大约这)

劈裂抗拉强度分割多维数据集测试的结果是一定程度的混凝土的拉伸强度,150毫米

混凝土立方体,立方体抗压强度试验使用了一个相同,被插入在压缩试验机。垫之间插入机器的压盘和多维数据集的压力平衡和分发。可以证明,在一个弹性的多维数据集以便加载,F =2π/在合适的角度的平面的加载应用程序存在,相应地,这样的多维数据集,在测试时,被分为两半沿该平面几乎均匀的拉伸应力级,在应力f以从方程f,可以计算,其中P是破坏时所施加的压缩载荷,a为立方体的长度。

2.2.3the modulus of elasticity弹性模量

the modulus of elasticity is determined from a low cycle loading test of prismatic specimen. The loading is limited to a maximum value of 0.5f. the loading-unloading cycle is repeated 5 to 10 times.

弹性模量来确定从一个低的棱柱形试样的循环载荷试验。装载被限制到最大值为0.5F。装载 - 卸载循环反复进行5?10次。

The modulus of elasticity obtained from low cycle loading test is given by the following equation (第三题大概在这)

低循环载荷试验从得到的弹性模量是由下面的公式给出

2.2.4 shrinkage of concrete混凝土收缩

any workable concrete mix contains more water than is needed for hydration. If the concrete is exposed to air , the large part of this free water evaporates in time , the rate and completeness of drying depending on ambient temperature and humidity conditions. As the concrete dries, it shrinks in volume, probably due to the capillary tension that develops in the water remaining in the concrete. Conversely, if dry concrete is immersed in water, it expands, regaining much of the volume loss from prior shrinkage. Shrinkage, which continues at a decreasing rate for several months, depending on the configuration of the member, is a detrimental property of concrete in several respects. When not adequately controlled, it will cause unsightly and deleterious cracks, as in slabs, walls, etc. in structures that are statically indeterminate(and most concrete structures are), it can cause large and harmful stresses. In prestressed concrete it leads to partial loss of initial prestress. For these reasons, it is essential that shrinkage be minimized and controlled.

任何可行的混凝土配合比中含有较多的水比需要水化。如果混凝土暴露于空气中,这个自由水分蒸发时间的很大一部分,取决于环境温度和湿度条件下的干燥速率和完整性。作为具体的干燥,但在体积收缩,可能是由于在剩余的水在混凝土中的毛细管张力,开发。相反,如果在水浸泡干燥混凝土,膨胀,重新获得与前收缩的体积损失。收缩率,持续数个月的下降速度,根据配置的部件,是在以下几个方面的混凝土产生有害的属性。当没有足够的控制,它会造成难看的和有害的裂缝,如地砖,墙面,超静定结构中(和最混凝土结构)等,它可能会导致大的和有害的应力。预应力混凝土初始预应力部分损失。由于这些原因,至关重要的是,最小化和控制收缩。

1. effect of cement and water contents on shrinkage

水泥和水的含量对收缩率的影响

water content is probably the largest single factor influencing the shrinkage of paste and concrete. Typical shrinkage values for concrete specimens with a 5 to 1 aggregate-cement ratio are 0.04, 0.06, 0.075 and 0.085 percent for water-cement ratios of 0.4,0.5,0.6 and 0.7, respectively. One of the reason is that the density and composition of calcium silicate formed at different water-cement ratios may be slightly different. In general, a higher cement content increases the shrinkage of concrete; the relative shrinkages of neat paste, mortar and concrete may be of the order of about 5,2 and 1.

含水量可能是最大的单一因素影响浆和混凝土的收缩。 5合1水灰比混凝土试件典型的收缩值是0.04,0.06,0.075%和0.085%的水胶比为0.4,0.5,0.6和0.7,分别。的原因之一是,形成在不同的水与水泥比硅酸钙的密度和成分可能会略有不同。一般情况下,较高的水泥含量,增加混凝土的收缩,相对整齐的泥浆,砂浆和混凝土的收缩可能是5,2和1的顺序。

Fineness of cement seems to be a factor in shrinkage and particles coarse than No.200 sieve, which react with water very slowly, have a restraining effect similar to that of aggregate. Thus, high-early-strength cement, which is finely ground, shrinks about 10 percent more than normal cement. Low-heat and Portland-pozzolan cements shrink a further 20 and 35 percent, respectively. This is

believed to be caused by larger quantities of calcium silicate, the shrinking component, present in them.

水泥细度,似乎是一个因素,在收缩率和粗颗粒比200号筛,与水发生反应很慢,有抑制效果,类似的集料。因此,高早强水泥,细磨,收缩约10%,比常规的水泥。低热量和波特兰火山灰水泥进一步缩小20%和35%,分别。这被认为是由于较大数量的硅酸钙,收缩组件,呈现在其中。

2.type and gradation of aggregate集料的类型和层次

As stated previously ,the drying shrinkage of concrete is a fraction of that of neat cement because the aggregate particles not only dilute the paste but also reinforce it against contraction. It has been shown that when readily compressible aggregate is used, concrete will shink as much as neat cement, and that expanded shale leads to shrinkage one-third more than that of ordinary aggregate. Steel aggregate on the other hand,leads to shrinkage one-third less than that of ordinary concrete. In general terms the elastic properties of aggregate determine the degree of restraint offered. The size and grading of aggregate do not, by themselves, influence the magnitude of shrinkage, but an aggregate incorporating larger sizes permints the use of a mix with less cement and hence a lower shrinkage. Increasing the maximum aggregate size and thereby the aggregate content by 20 percent of the total volume of the concrete will ensure a substantial decrease in shrinkage.

如前所述,混凝土的干燥收缩的影响是纯水泥的一小部分,因为聚集体颗粒不仅稀糊,而且也加强反收缩。它已被证明,当可压缩合容易地被使用时,将热收缩不亚于纯水泥混凝土,膨胀页岩导致收缩率的三分之一超过普通骨料。钢合另一方面,导致收缩小于普通混凝土的三分之一。总体而言,集料的弹性性质决定提供的限制程度。集料的大小和分级本身,不这样做,影响收缩的幅度,但是汇聚将较大尺寸permints以较少的水泥,从而以较低的收缩率的混合使用。最大骨料粒径的总含量,从而增加混凝土的总体积的20%,以确保收缩率大幅下降。3.effect of admixtures

as can be predicted for the effect of water-cement ratio on shrinkage, admixtures that increase the water requirement of concrete increase shringkage and those that decrease the water requirement decrease it. Calcium chloride in the amount ofen added as an accelerator—2 percent by weight of the amount of cement—may increase drying shrinkage by as much as 50 percent.(第五题)

可以预见的收缩,增加混凝土的收缩和减少需水量减少,从而增加了需水量的外加剂水灰比的效果。氯化钙的量奥芬水泥的用量(重量)作为促进剂的2%的增加,可能会增加干燥收缩率高达50%。

The over-all effect of the use of air-entrained concrete is not to increase shrinkage. Some admixtures, if used in somewhat larger than normal doses, do increase shrinkage greatly and care must be exercised in the proportioning.

过度所有加气混凝土的使用效果是在不增加收缩。一些外加剂,如果略大于正常剂量使用,不增加收缩大大,必须小心谨慎配比。

2.2.5 creep of concrete混凝土徐变

Creep is the slow deformation of a material over considerable length of time at constant stress or load. The nature of the creep process is shown schematically in figure 2.4. this particular concrete was loaded after 28 days with resulting instantaneous elastic strain. If the same stress is kept for a period of time, and additional strain due to creep effect can be recorded. If the sustained load is removed, the strain decreases immediately by an amount equal to the elastic strain at the given age; this is generally lower than the elastic strain on loading since the elastic modulus has increased in the intervening period. This instantaneous recovery is followed by a gradual decreased in the intervening period. This instantaneous recovery is followed by a gradual decrease in strain, called creep recovery. This recovery is not complete because creep is not simply a reversible phenomenon.

渐变是缓慢变形的材料在恒定应力或负载在相当长的时间。潜变过程中的性质,是示意性地示出在图 2.4中。这个特殊的混凝土被加载后28天产生的瞬时弹性应变。如果在一段时间内保持相同的应力,并且可记录,可额外的压力,由于蠕变效应。如果持续负载被删除,应变减小立即金额相等于在给定的年龄弹性应变,这是普遍低于上加载的弹性应变的弹性模量,因为在此期间增加了。瞬时恢复之后的逐渐减少在此期间。瞬时恢复之后逐渐减少,应变,蠕变恢复。这种复苏是不完整的,因为蠕变不单纯是一个可逆的现象。

Creep does not include any immediate elastic strains caused by loading or any shrinkage or swelling caused by moisture changes. When a concrete structural element is dried under load, the creep that occurs is one to two times as large as it would be under constant moisture conditions. Adding normal drying shrinkage to this and considering the fact that creep can be several times as large as the elastic strain on loading, it may be seen that these factors can cause considerable deflection and that they are of great importance in structural mechanics.

潜变不包括通过加载或任何收缩或膨胀湿度变化引起的任何直接引起的弹性应变。当用在负载下的混凝土结构元件,发生蠕变的一到两倍大,因为它会在不变的湿度条件下。添加正常的干燥收缩于此,考虑潜变的事实,还可以数次上加载的弹性应变大时,可以看出,这些因素可能会导致相当大的挠度和结构力学中是非常重要的。1. factors influencing creep影响潜变因素

concrete that exhibits high shrinkage generally also shows a high creep, but how the two phenomena are connected is still not understood. Evidence suggests that they are closely related. When hydrated cement is completely dried, little or no creep occurs; for a given concrete the lower the relative humidity, the higher the creep.

混凝土,具有较高的收缩率一般也显示出较高的蠕变,但如何连接这两种现象仍然没有完全理解。有证据表明,他们是密切相关的。当水合的水泥完全干燥,很少或没有发生蠕变,对于一个给定的混凝土的低的相对湿度下,较高的蠕变。

Strength of concrete has a considerable influence on creep and within a wide range creep is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete at the time of application of load. From this it follows that creep is closely related to the water-cement ratio. There is no doubt also that the modulus of elasticity of aggregate controls the amount of creep that can be realized and concretes made with different aggregates exhibit creep of varying magnitudes.

混凝土强度具有相当大的影响潜变和在宽范围内的潜变负载的应用时混凝土的强度成反比。从这一点如下,潜变是密切相关的水灰比。这是毫无疑问也集料的弹性模量控制的蠕变量,可实现混凝土采用不同的聚合表现出不同程度的潜变。

Experiments have shown that creep continues for a very long time; detectable changes have been found after as long as 30 years. The rate decreases continuously; however, it is generally assumed that creep tends to a limiting value. It has been estimated that 75 percent of 20-year creep occurs during the first year.(第六题)

实验已经表明,潜变持续很长的时间,只要30年后,已发现可检测的变化。率连续减小,但是,它一般假设,潜变趋向于限制值。据估计,75%,20年的潜变发生在第一年期间。

2. effects of creep潜变的影响

creep of plain concrete does not by itself affect strength, although under very high stresses creep hastens the approach of the limiting strain at which failure takes place. The influence of creep on the ultimate strength of a simply supported reinforced concrete beam subjected to a sustained load is insignificant, but deflection increases considerably and may in many cases be a critical consideration in design, another instance of the adverse effects of creep is its influence on the stability of the structure through increase in deformation and consequent transfer of load to other components. Thus, even when creep does not affect may be extremely serious as fat as the performance of the structure as a whole is concerned.

普通混凝土的潜变不影响本身的实力,虽然非常高应力下潜变加快极限应变的方法,在故障发生。潜变极限强度的钢筋混凝土简支梁受持续负载的影响是微不足道的,但偏转大大增加,并在许多情况下可能是一个关键的设计考虑,潜变的不利影响的另一个实例是它的影响力通过增加变形和由此产生的负载转移到其他组件的结构的稳定性。因此,即使当潜变不影响可能表现为脂肪的结构作为一个整体而言是极为严重的。

The loss of prestress due to creep is well known and accounted for the failure of all early attempts at prestressing. Only with the introduction of high tensile steel did prestressing become a successful operation. The effects of creep may thus be harmful. On the whole, however, creep unlike shrinkage is beneficial in relieving stress concentrations and has contributed to the success of concrete as a structural material.

由于蠕变预应力的损失是众所周知的,占所有早期的尝试中失败的预应力。只有引进高强度钢,预应力成为一个成功的操作。蠕变的影响,因此可能是有害的。但是,就整体而言,潜变不同收缩率,有利于缓解应力集中,作为结构材料和混凝土的成功作出了贡献。

Questions

1 define characteristic strength of concrete.

定义混凝土的强度特性。

2 how and when is the characteristic compressive strength f determined?

如何以及何时确定特征抗压强度确定的F?

3 how to determine the modulus of elasticity of concrete?

如何确定混凝土的弹性模量吗?

4 how to test the splitting strength of concrete?

4混凝土劈裂强度如何测试?

5 how to control shrinkage of concrete?

5如何控制混凝土收缩?

6 describe the property of concrete creep based on figure 2.4.

6描述混凝土的质量的徐变根据图2.4。

7 what are the factors influencing creep of concrete?

7哪些因素影响混凝土的徐变?(宽范围内的潜变负载,湿度等因素)

1) 内在因素──混凝土组成成分

a) 水泥用量越多,徐变越大;b) 水灰比越大,徐变越大;c) 骨料越坚硬,徐变越小。

2) 环境因素──养护时的温度、湿度

养护时温度高、湿度大,徐变越小。

3) 应力条件──混凝土的应力大小

混凝土的应力越大,徐变也越大。

(5) 徐变对混凝土结构和构件的工作性能的影响

由于混凝土的徐变,会使构件的变形增加;

在预应力混凝土结构中会造成预应力损失。

2.3 Steel Materials 钢材料

2.3.1 steel properties 钢的性能

Structural steel is an important construction material. It possesses attributes such as strength, stiffness, toughness, and ductility that are very desirable in modern constructions.

Strength is measured in terms of the matrrial’s yield strength, f. the common steel strength grades used in constructions are Q235,Q345,Q390 and Q420. The stress-strain curve of steel Q235 from uniaxial coupon test is shown in figure 2.5. it is seen that the proportional limit stress (marked at point A) and the yield stress(marked at point B) are very close, and thus the small difference between the two stresses can be ignored. The stress-strain curve also shows a small plateau beyond the elastic limit and then an increase in strength due to strain hardening. At point E, necking occurs and the specimen fails rapidly to fracture.

结构钢是一种重要的建筑材料。它具有的属性,如强度,刚度,韧性和延展性,在现代建筑中是非常理想的。强度测量的材料的屈服强度。共同建设中使用的钢材强度等级Q235,Q345,Q390和Q420。 Q235钢的应力 - 应变曲线从单轴券试验如图2.5所示。可以看出,比例极限应力(在点A处标记)和屈服应力(标记为B点处)都非常接近,因此,两者之间的应力小的差别可以忽略不计。应力 - 应变曲线也示出的一个小高原超过弹性极限,则由于应变硬化的强度增加。在E点时,缩颈和标本未能迅速断裂。

The stress-strain curve of high strength steel materials is shown in figure 2.6. there is no clear yielding point in the curve, and the plastic flowing is almost invisible. The yield stress is determined by the 0.2% of offset strain method. In the coupon test, the specimen is fractured suddenly and there is no remarkable necking phenomenon.

高强度钢材料的应力 - 应变曲线,在图2.6中示出。有在曲线没有明显的屈服点,塑性流动几乎是不可见的。由0.2%的偏移应变法确定的屈服应力。在试验,试样突然断裂,并没有显着的颈缩现象。

Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is measured as the slope of the materal’s stress-strain curve. Stiffness does not vary appreciable for different steel grades. Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy before failure. It is measured as the area under the material’s stress-strain curve.

刚度是一个材料抵抗变形的能力。这是测量的材料的应力 - 应变曲线的斜率。刚度不随可观的不同的钢种。韧性是在出现故障前的材料吸收能量的能力。这是测量材料的应力 - 应变曲线下的面积。

Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo large inelastic, or plastic, deformation before failure. It is measured in terms of percent elongation or percent reduction in area of the specimen tested in uniaxial tension. Ductility generally decreases with increasing steel strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows an indeterminate structure to undergo stress redistribution. Ductility also enhances the energy absorption characteristic of the structure, which is extremely important in seismic

design.

延展性的能力构成重大故障前进行大无弹性,或塑料,变形。据测定,在%的伸长率或在单轴拉伸测试的试样面积减少百分之。延展性普遍提高钢的强度降低。钢的延性是一个很重要的属性。结构钢变形的能力大大骨折发生故障之前,允许一个不确定的结构进行应力重分布。延性也增强了的能量吸收特性的结构,这是极为重要的抗震设计。

2.3.2 types of steel钢的类型

Structural steels used for construction purpose are generally grouped into several major classifications.

用于建筑用途的结构钢一般分为几个主要的分类。

Carbon steels: in addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are carbon(maximum content=0.22%) and manganese, with a small amount of silicon and copper, the most commonly used structural carbon steel is Q235, which is extremely ductile and is suitable for both bolting and welding.

碳钢:除铁,这类钢的主要成分是碳(最大含量=0.22%)和锰,用少量的硅和铜,最常用的碳素结构钢Q235的是,这是非常延展性,适合螺栓和焊接。

High strength low alloy steels; these steels possess enhances strength as a result of the presence of one or more alloying agents such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and other in addition to the basic elements of iron, carbon, and manganese. Normally, the total quantity of all the alloying elements is bellow 5% of the total composition. These steels generally have higher corrosion-resistant capability than carbon steels. Q345,Q390 and Q420 are all high strength low alloy steels.

低合金高强度钢,这些钢具有增强强度剂,如铜,镍,铬,硅,钒,除了铁,碳的基本要素和其他一种或多种合金的存在下,作为结果,和锰。通常情况下,所有的合金元素的总数量,是波纹管的总组合物的5%。这些钢材通常具有较高的耐腐蚀能力比碳钢。 Q345,Q390和Q420低合金高强度钢。

Quenched and tempered alloy steels; the quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of those used in carbon and low alloy steels. In addition, they are heat treated by quenching and tempering to enhance their strengths. These steels do not exhibit well-defined yield points. These steels, despite their enhanced strength, have reduced ductility.

淬火和回火合金钢,用于这些钢的合金元素的数量超出那些用于碳钢和低合金钢。此外,他们通过淬火和回火的热处理,以提高他们的长处。这些钢没有表现出良好定义的屈服点。这些钢材,尽管他们增强实力,降低延展性。

2.3.3 design considerations 设计考虑

Special problems occur with steel work and good practice must be followed to ensure satisfactory performance in service.

特殊问题的发生,必须遵循与钢的工作和良好做法,以确保安全因素令人满意。

1. Fatigue 耐久

Fatigue failure can occur in members subjected to fluctuating loads such as crane girders or bridge structures. Failure occurs through initiation and propagation of a crack that starts at a fault or structural discontinuity and the failure load may be well below its static value.

耐久失效可能发生波动负荷,如吊车梁桥结构构件。故障发生时通过一条缝,开始出现故障或结构不连续,破坏荷载可能会远远低于其静态价值的萌生和扩展。

Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of steel structures. Tests show that bull welds give the best performance in service while continuous fillet welds are much superior to intermittent fillet welds.

焊接连接有钢结构的疲劳强度的影响最大。测试结果表明,防撞焊缝给表现最好的服务,同时连续角焊缝远优于断续角焊缝。

The maximum stress level at the weld toe is known as the hot spot stress. The fatigue life of a welded structure can be predicted based on the hot spot stress range at the welded region. Alternatively, fracture mechanics approach can also be used to calculate the remaining life of welded structures with initial crack. Under cyclic service loading, crack always initiates at the areas of stress concentration.

被称为热点应力的最大应力水平上面的焊趾。焊接结构的耐久寿命可以预测基于热点应力在焊接区域的范围。另外,断裂力学的方法也可以被用于计算焊接结构的剩余寿命与初始裂纹。根据循环服务的负担,裂纹总是发起的应力集中区域。

2. brittle fracture脆性断裂

Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10 but it becomes more brittle as the temperature

falls. And fracture can occur at low stresses below 0. The charpy impact test is used to determine the resistance of steel to brittle fracture. In this test, a small specimen is broken by a hammer and the energy or toughness to cause failure at a given test temperature is measured.

在10以上的温度下结构钢的韧性,但它变得更脆,随着温度的下降。骨折可以发生在低应力低于0。的夏比冲击试验是用来确定钢的耐脆性断裂。在该试验中,一个小的试样用锤打破的能量或韧性造成的故障在给定的试验温度的测量。

By careful selection of steel grade with adequate impact toughness and good detailing, the likelihood of brittle fracture can be reduced. Thin plates are more fracture resistance than thick ones. Abrupt changes of section and stress concentration should be avoided. Fillet welds should not be laid down across tension flanges and intermittent welding should not be used.

精心挑选的钢级有足够的冲击韧性和良好的细节,可以减少脆性断裂的可能性。薄板断裂性比厚的。应避免突然变化的部分和应力集中。角焊缝不应放下跨张力法兰和间断焊接不应使用。

3. Fire protection 消防

Steel structures without fire protection may suffer serious damage or even collapse in a fire catastrophe. This is because the mechanical properties of steel deteriorate by heat during fires, and the yield strength of conventional steel at 600 is less than 0.3 of the specified yield strength at room temperature. Fire protection can be provided by encasing the member in concrete, fire board or cementitious fiber materials. The main types of fire protection for columns and beams are shown in figure 2.7. more recently, intumescent paint is being used especially for exposed steelwork.

没有防火的钢结构在火灾灾难可能会严重受损甚至崩溃。这是因为钢的机械性能恶化,通过热在火灾过程中,与传统的钢的屈服强度在600指定的在室温下的屈服强度小于0.3。可以提供防火保护套部件,在混凝土中,防火板或水泥纤维材料。立柱和横梁的防火保护的主要类型,如图2.7所示。最近,正在使用的膨胀型涂料,尤其是对裸露的钢结构。

4. Corrosion protection 腐蚀防护

Atmospheric corrosion occurs when steel is exposed to a continuous supply of water and oxygen. The rate of corrosion can be reduced if metallic coating or painting is used. Other methods of corrosion protection are sherardizing, concrete encasement and cathodic protection.

发生的大气腐蚀钢暴露于水和氧的连续供应。可以减小腐蚀的速度,如果使用金属涂层或涂漆。渗锌防腐蚀保护的其他方法,具体的装箱和阴极保护。

Questions

1. how to describe the mechanical properties, l.e. , strength, stiffness, toughness and ductility, from a typical stress-strain curve of steel material measured from uniaxial coupon test?

怎么形容的力学性能,L.E. ,强度,刚度,韧性和延展性,从一个典型的钢材料应力 - 应变曲线从实验中测量的?

2. what are the general measures in practical engineering for fire protection and corrosion protection for steel members?

在实际工程中的钢构件防火和防腐蚀保护的一般措施是什么?

答案后两段

2.4Structural Steel Shapes 型钢

Steel sections used for construction are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-rolled, cold-formed, and welded.

用于建筑型材可在各种形状和大小。一般来说,有钢材的形状也可以形成有三个程序:热轧,冷弯,焊接。2.4.1 rolled and formed sections 推出,冷弯型钢

Rolled and formed sections are produced in steel mills from steel blooms, beam blanks or coils by passing them through a series of rollers. Rolled and formed sections have the following shapes, which are also shown in figure 2.8;

钢厂从钢华,梁坯或线圈通过他们通过一系列的辊轧制,冷弯型钢生产。轧制和形成部分具有以下的形状,这也示于图2.8;

I-section: these are very efficient sections for resisting bending moment about the major axis.

I部分:这部分是非常有效的抵抗弯矩的长轴。

H-section: these are sections produced primarily to resist axial load with a high radius of gyration about the minor axis to prevent buckling in that plane.

H-部分:这部分主要生产具有高回转半径的短轴防止屈曲,平面抵抗轴向载荷。

Channels: these are used for beams, bracing members, truss members and in compound members.

通道:用于梁,支撑构件,桁架构件和复合成员。

Equal and unequal angles: these are used for bracing members, truss members, purlins and sheeting rails.

平等和不平等的角度:这些都是用于支撑构件,桁架,檩条和塑料布轨。

Structural tees: the sections are produced by cutting an H-section into two parts . tees are used for truss members,ties and light beams.

三通结构:部分是通过切割H型钢分为两部分。三通用于桁架构件,领带和光束。

Circular, square and rectangular hollow section. These are mostly produced from hot-rolled coils, and may be hot-finished or cold-formed. A welded mother tube is first formed and it is rolled to its final square or rectangular shape. In the hot process, the final shaping is done at the steel normalizing temperature whereas in the cold process, it is done at ambient room temperature. These sections make very efficient compression members, and are used in a wide range of applications as members in roof trusses, lattice girders, in building frames, for purlins, sheeting rails, etc.

圆形,方形和矩形空心部分。这些大多是从热轧带卷,并可能是热成品或冷弯。首先形成焊接母管被卷到其最终的正方形或长方形的形状。在热的过程中,最终成形而在寒冷的过程中在钢正火温度,在室温的温度下完成。在这些区域里进行非常高效的压缩部件,和用于在大范围内的应用程序的成员在屋架,格构梁,在建立帧,檩条,床单导轨等

2.4.2 compound sections 复合截面

Compound sections are formed by the following means(see Figure 2.9).

化合物部分是由下面的装置(参见图2.9)。

(1) Strengthening a rolled section such as an H-section beam by welding with cover plates, as shown in figure 2.9a.

(1)通过焊接盖板加强,如轧制的第一个H型截面梁,如图所示在图2.9A。

(2) Combining two members carry loads from separate directions.

(2)将两个成员进行负载从不同的方向。

(3) Connecting two members together to form a strong combined member.

(3)两名成员连接在一起,形成一个强大的组合成员。

Examples are the laced and battened members shown in figure 2.9c.

例如图2.9c中的缀条和缀条连接构件。

2.4.3 built-up sections内置的部分

Built-up sections are made by welding plates together to form I, H or box members which are termed plate girders, built-up columns, box girders or box columns,respectively, as shown in figure 2.10. these members are used where heavy loads have to be carried, or where long spans are required.

内置的部分是由板焊接在一起,形成I,H股或箱部件被称为板梁,内置列,箱形梁或箱型柱,分别为,如图2.10所示。使用这些成员必须进行重物,或长跨度的要求。

2.4.4 cold-rolled open sections冷轧的开口部分

Thin steel plates can be formed into a wide range of sections by cold rolling. The most important uses for cold-rolled open sections in steel structures are for purlins and sheeting rails. Three common sections—the zed,sigma and lipped channel—are shown in figure 2.11.

广泛的部分,可以形成薄钢板冷轧。钢结构冷轧开口部分的最重要的用途是用于檩条和压片轨。三种常见的部分的ZED,西格玛和唇通道,如图2.11所示。

Questions

Introduce different types of steel sections and their application briefly.

简要介绍不同类型的型钢及其应用

红色部分是答案,答案不全,考到自己再找找

Chapter 3. Structural Design concepts 结构设计

3.1 Load Conditions and Load Paths负载条件下和负载路径

3.1.1 Vertical Loads竖向荷载作用下

Gravity loads act in the same direction as gravity (i.e., downward or vertically) and Include dead, live, and snow loads.

重力荷载作用在同一方向的重力(即,向下或垂直),包括恒载,活荷载,和雪荷载.

The tributary area is the area of the building construction that is supported by a structural element, including the dead load (i.e., weight of the construction) and any applied loads (i.e., live load). For example, the tributary gravity load on a floor joist would include the uniform floor load (dead

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