专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学
第一节语言学基本概念
知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能
特点：
Creativity 可创造性
Duality 两重性（声音和意义）
Arbitrariness 任意性
Displacement 移位性
Cultural Transmission 文化传递性
Interchangeabilty 可交换性
Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身
功能：
Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）
Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系
Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学
Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情
Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼
Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌
Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身
2 语言学的主要分支
内部分支：
Phonetics 语音学
Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生
Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性
Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制
Consonants / Vowels
Phonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列
Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段
Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位
Allophones 音位变体put span
Contrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pear
Complementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speak
Free Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increase
Suprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）
Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位
Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和Bound
Morpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。
构词法：
Derivation
Compounding
Conversion
Lexical Change Proper （特有词汇变化）
Invention 新创词汇Nylon
Blending 混成法Transistor
Abbreviation 缩词法Ad.
Acronym 首字母缩略法WTO
Back Formation 逆生法editor ---edit
Borrowing Kung-fu
Semantic Change 语义变化
Broadening 词义扩大Narrowing 词义缩小Meaning Shift 词义转移
Syntax 句法学研究造句的规则
Traditional Grammar: 传统语法认为一个句子是一些列的单词，这些单词都可以分为不同词性；句子可以按照功能分为主语、谓语等等；名词有数性格；动词有时态、语态和语气等等。
Structural Grammar: 索绪尔创造，提出了言语parole和语言language的概念，是脱离传统语法的一次尝试，研究不同语法单位之间的内部关系，在结构主义语法中，单词不是独立的，而是相互之间有内部联系的，关键概念：Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations （组合关系和聚合关系）、Structure and System、Immediate Constituents （直接成分）、Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions（向心结构和离心结构）。
Transformational-Generative Grammar: 乔姆斯基首创。生成语法学与传统语法学的一个区别，是它使用数学那样的符号和公式来规定概念，表达规则，所以称为形式化的语法。生成语法学家采用数学模拟的方法进行研究，其研究的对象是大脑的一种独特的认知系统──语法系统，因此乔姆斯基认为它属于经验科学，是一种特殊的心理学，最终将归入研究人脑机制的生物学。乔姆斯基说，与其把生成语法看作一种理论，不如看作一门“学科”，其性质和研究方法与以往的语言学有本质的区别，而与其他自然科学则基本一致。
其中著名的天赋假说The Innateness Hypothesis认为孩子生下来就会有语言习得机制Language Acquisition Device，包括三个元素：a hypothesis-maker（假设标记）、linguistic universal（语言普遍现象）和an evaluation procedure（评介程序）。
转换生成语法把理想的语言者的语言能力作为研究对象。
语法研究发展经历了五个阶段：the Classical Theory/the Standard Theory/the Extended Theory/The Revised Theory/the Minimalist program（极简抽象派）。
Systematic Functional Grammar: 韩礼德创造，把语言的实际运用作为研究对象，语言分为两个部分：系统语法和功能语法，关键概念：Theme and Rheme 主体与述位；Communicative Dynamism 交际动力；the three meta-function of language---Ideational function （概念功能）、Interpersonal function （交际功能）和Textual function （文本功能）。
句子类型：简单句、复合句和并列句
Semantics 语义学研究意义如何在语言中编码
意义的定义：G. Leech和他的七种意义：Conceptual meaning/Connotative meaning（内涵意义）/Social meaning/Affective meaning/Reflective meaning/Collective meaning（搭配意义）/Thematic meaning
行为主义：美国结构主义的主要代表是Bloomfield，从行为主义和机械论的观点观察语言现象，把语言看成为一系列刺激和反应，并据此提出了著名的传递公式。
语境主义：把意义基于上下文，代表人物是Firth。
The Conceptual View: Semantic Triangle（语义三角）是一种关于意义的理论，由英国学者奥格登（Ogden）和理查兹（Richards）在1923年出版的语义学重要著作《意义的意义》（The Meaning of Meaning)中提出，代表了传统语义学的典型观点。语义三角论是一种全新的意义模式，也称意义三角论。该理论是指符号、意义和客观事物之间处于一种相互制约、相互作用的关系之中。它强调语言符号是对事物的指代，指称过程就是符号、意义和事物发生关系的过程。
语义三角形包含以下几点含义：1）概念/思想（concept/thought）和客观事物（referent/thing）之间是直接的联系。概念是在客观事物的基础上概括而成的，是客观事物在头脑中的反映。二者用直线连接，表示a concept refers to a thing，即概念反映客观事物。2）概念与符号/词（symbol/word）之间也有直接联系。概念是通过符号表达出来的，二者用实线连结，表示a word symbolize a concept，即词表示概念。3）符号或词与指称物/事物（referent/thing）之间没有直接的、必然的联系，二者之间具有任意性，是约定俗成的。虚线表示a word stands for a referent，即词代表指称物。符号与指代物之间没有内在的必然联系，真正的联系存在于人的头脑之中。
关键概念：
1 Lexical sense relations （词汇含义关系）：Synonymy（同义关系）、Polysemy （一词多义）
2 Homonymy（同音或同行异义词）：Hyponymy（上下文关系）、Antonymy（反义关系）
3 Sentential sense relations（语句含义关系）：Tautology （同义反复句）、Contradiction（自相矛盾句）、Inconsistency（矛盾关系）、Synonymousness（同义关系）、Entailment（衍推关系）、Presupposition（预设关系）、Semantically-Anomalousness（语义反复句）。
Pragmatics 语用学研究语境中的意义
言语行为理论：Speech Act Theory
1 第一个研究语言使用的理论。
2 由John Langshaw Austin首创。
3 主要观点：事情可以由单词来做。Things can be done with word.
4 句子的两种类型：Performative 行事话语和Constative 叙述话语
5 行事行为理论：言内行为、言外行为和言后行为。
言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为，它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。
会话含义理论：Conversational Implicature
1 由Herbert Paul Grice提出
格莱斯于1957年发表的《意义》一文中正式提出“非自然意义理论”。他把意义分为两类: “自然意义”(natural meaning)和“非自然意义”(non-natural meaning)。这一区分的重要理论意义是主张运用“非自然意义理论”去全面地﹑深入地分析言语交际中地话语意义或信息交流内容.。格莱斯的“非自然意义理论”实际上是一种交际理论。任何交际过程都涉及交际意图，任何成功的交际都取决于听话人对说话人交际意图地准确理解。
2 The Cooperative Principles（合作理论）: Quantity Maxim（数量准则）、Quality Maxim（质量准则）、Relation Maxim （关系准则）和Manner Maxim（方式准则）
外部分支：
Psycholinguistics 心理语言学研究语言和心理的关系
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学研究语言种类的特征、语言功能和说话者三者之间的在同一语境下的互动和变化（萨丕尔—沃尔夫假设）
Anthropological Linguistics 人类语言学研究几千年来语言的产生和语言的多样性Computational Linguistics 计算机语言学运用计算机形成语言
二语习得
现代语言学流派
索绪尔——布拉格学派——伦敦学派——美国结构主义——转换生成语法
几个重要概念：
规定性和描述性
言语和语言
共时性和历时性
语言能力和应用能力
真题讲解：
04年
38. ____refers to the learner and development of a language.
A. Language acquisition
B. Language comprehension
C. Language production C. Language instruction
39. The word “Motel” comes from “motor+hotel”. This is an example of _____in morphology.
A. backformation
B. conversion
C. blending
D. acronym
40. Language is the tool of communication. The symbol “Highway Closed” on a highway serves
A. an expressive function
B. an informative function
C. a performative function
D. a persuasive function
05年
38. The study of the mental processes of language comprehension and production is
A. corpus linguistics
B. sociolinguistics
C. theoretical linguistics
D. psycholinguistics
39. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called
A. dialect
B. idiolect
C. pidgin
D. register
40. When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing
A. an illocutionary act
B. a perlocutionary act
C. a locutionary act
D. none of the above
06年
38. Which of the following is NOT a design feature is human language?
A. Arbitrariness
B. Displacement
C. Duality
D. Diachronicity
39. Which type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry?
A. A simple sentence
B. A coordinate sentence
C. A complex sentence
D. None of the above
40. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called
A. hyponymy
B. synonymy
C. polysemy
D.homonymy
07年
38. _____refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.
A. Phonology
B. Morphology
C. Semantics
D. Sociolinguistics
39. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT
A. lexical
B. syntactic
C. phonological
D. psycholinguistic
40. The word tail once referred to “ the tail of a horse,” but now it used to mean “the tail of any animal.” This is an example of
A. widening of meaning
B. narrowing of meaning
C. meaning shift
D. loss of meaning
08年
38. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of
A. reference
B. meaning
C. antonymy
D. context
39. The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of
A. dialectal synonyms
B. stylistic synonyms
C. emotive synonyms
D. collocational synonyms
40. The distinction between parole and language was made by
A. Halliday
B. Chomsky
C. Bloomfield
D. Saussure
09年
38. Syntax is the study of
A. language function
B. sentence structures
C. textual organization
D. word formation
39. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?
A. Arbitrariness
B. Productivity
C. Cultural transmission
D. Finiteness
40. The speech act theory was first put forward by
A. John Searle
B. John Austin
C. Noam Chomsky
D. M.A.K. Halliday
10年
38. The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is
A. morphology
B. general linguistics
C. phonology
D. semantics
39. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?
A. Landlady
B. Greenhouse
C. Uplift
D. Unacceptable
40. The word holiday originally meant holy day; but now the word signifies any day on which we don’t have to work. This is an example of
A. meaning shift
B. widening if meaning
C. narrowing of meaning
D. loss of meaning
11年真题
38. The study of the production of speech sounds is of great interest to those working in
A. articulatory phonetics
B. acoustic phonetics
C. auditory phonetics
D. phonology
29. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?
A. Saussure
B. Chomsky
C. Halliday
D. Anonymous
40. The words “amaze” and “astound” are
A. dialectal synonyms
B. Semantically different synonyms
C. stylistic synonyms
D. collocationa
专八2003-人文知识真题及答案精编版
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1._Phonetics_ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. 2._Phonology_ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 3.Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of _words_. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation 4.Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct _sentences_ 5.Semantics examines how _meaning_ is encoded in a language. 6._Pragmatics_ is the study of meaning in context. 7._Sociolinguistics_ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. 8.In contrast with other linguists, then, _anthropological_ linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. 9.Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and _mind_, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. 10.In a narrow sense, _applied_ linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching to foreign and second languages. 11. 1. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds. 12.[d] _voiced stops, alveolar_; [θ] _voiceless fricatives, dent al_; 13.[?] _front, open, low, unrounded_; [i:] _front, close, high, unrounded_; 14. 15. 2. Write the word indicated by each transcription. 16.[itɑr] _guitar_ [tuzdei] _Tuesday_ [twuθbr??] _toothbrush_ 17.[?ph?intm?nt] _appointment_ [p??keik] _pancake_ 18. 19. https://www.360docs.net/doc/4a11111784.html,paring [ɡwo?t] and[??ɡ?r], _goat_ and _anger_ are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /g/. Such variants of a phoneme are called _allophones_ of the same phoneme. In this case, they are said to be in _complementary distribution_. 20. 21. 4.Transcribe the following set of words and mark primary and secondary stress with super- and sub-ticks. 22.repeat _[ri’pit]_, repetitive _[ri’petitiv]_, repetition _[?r?p??t???n]_. 23. 24. 5. Please identify the stressed word, and intonation pattern of the following sentences.
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