Extensive reading in English habits and attitudes of a group of Italian university EFL students

Journal of Research in Reading,ISSN0141-0423

Volume24,Issue2,2001,pp135±153

Extensive reading in English:habits

and attitudes of a group of Italian

university EFL students

Belinda Crawford Camiciottoli

Faculty of Economics,University of Florence,Italy

ABSTRACT

Although extensive reading is now recognised as an important element of language instruction,it appears that EFL students specialising in business studies do little reading in English beyond course requirements.This study illustrates the findings of a survey of reading frequency and attitudes related to extensive reading in English.A questionnaire administered to182Italian EFL students at the University of Florence showed that even if frequency of reading in English is quite low,attitude towards it is clearly favourable.In addition,multiple regression analysis was used to determine potentially influential factors.Reading in Italian and experience abroad were signifi-cantly correlated with both reading frequency and attitude.The correlation between past access to English books and reading attitude approached the significance level.

A negative correlation was found instead between the number of years of past English study and reading attitude.These findings are useful for defining appropriate instructional actions and identifying areas for further research,with the aim of more effectively promoting extensive reading in English.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years educators involved in foreign language instruction have become increasingly aware of the importance of extensive reading,defined by Hafiz and Tudor(1989,p.4)as`the reading of large amounts of material in the second language(L2)over time for personal pleasure or interest,and without the addition of productive tasks or follow-up language work'.A major benefit of extensive reading is incidental vocabulary learning,referring to the ability to acquire the meaning of unknown words when reading,without any direct or specific instruction(Konopak et al,1987).Krashen(1989,p.440)explains this phenomenon with his`Input Hypothesis'which`assumes that we acquire language by understanding messages', and further suggests that reading is one of the most effective sources of input in the subconscious process of incidental vocabulary learning.This theory has its roots in

136CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI vocabulary acquisition at the level of native language(L1),but as pointed out by Krashen(1989)and Dupuy,Tse and Cook(1996),there are many shared aspects in the development of reading skills in L1and L2.Two related studies have addressed incidental vocabulary learning in L2contexts.In a replication of a study done at the level of native language(Saragi,Nation and Meister,1978),Pitts,White and Krashen(1989)found that adult ESL students demonstrated significant levels of incidental learning of unknown words measured by a test given after reading two chapters from A Clockwork Orange.Day,Omura and Hiramatsu(1991)observed that the scores of Japanese students in high-school and college-level EFL classes were significantly higher than those of control groups on a vocabulary test given after reading an assigned mystery story.

In the specific context of free extensive reading in L2,other studies have suggested further benefits.Both Robb and Susser(1989)and Mason and Krashen(1997) conducted experiments with Japanese EFL college students to investigate the effects of reading self-selected books on comprehension.In both studies,reading compre-hension post-test scores indicated that the extensive reading method produced superior results compared to more traditional approaches to L2reading instruction. In research investigating the effect of voluntary reading of various types of materials (e.g.books,magazines and newspapers)on spelling skills(Polak and Krashen,1988), positive correlations were shown between the volume of voluntary reading and spelling accuracy.An experiment with a group of10-year-old Pakistani pupils in Britain found that the experimental group which had participated in an extensive reading programme had significant improvements in post-test scores for reading and writing skills as compared to two control groups(Hafiz and Tudor,1989).

With specific reference to reading frequency and attitudes,there is a paucity of research at the level of EFL instruction in higher education.The few studies relating to this topic were,in fact,conducted in somewhat different instructional contexts. Mokhtari and Sheorey(1994)investigated the reading habits of international students enrolled in ESL courses at an American university,in relation to educa-tional level(undergraduate/graduate)and high/low English proficiency levels.Their findings indicated that these variables did not significantly influence the volume of non-academic reading.Davis et al(1992)conducted a survey of the attitudes of American college students enrolled in foreign language courses(Spanish and French) towards the study of foreign language literature.While the correlation between self-perception of reading ability and attitude approached the level of significance,they were surprised to find that contact with the culture of the target language did not significantly influence attitudes towards foreign literature study.In a study that dealt with students'perceptions of the importance of pleasure reading in the native language,White et al(1987)found that college freshman were keenly aware of its efficacy as a means of vocabulary acquisition.However,the same authors also mentioned previous research they had carried out in which US college students studying Spanish as a second language did not place much value on reading as an effective way to learn new vocabulary.

Although limited in number and scope,the above studies support the case for extensive reading in L2contexts.In spite this evidence,most teachers would probably agree that,generally speaking,EFL students do little reading in English that goes beyond required course textbooks.Yet I occasionally encounter students who demonstrate a superior level of vocabulary.When asked where they learned

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL137

these words,the answer usually refers to some sort of leisure-time reading in English, often totally unrelated to the course curriculum.Unfortunately,these students represent the exception and not the rule.This perception is,in fact,the inspiration for this exploratory classroom study undertaken at the Faculty of Economics at the University of Florence(Italy),with specific reference to students enrolled in the two-year English course in fulfilment of the foreign language requirement for a degree in Business Administration.The English course is mainly content-based and successful completion requires a proficiency level ranging from upper intermediate to advanced. About90%of the students have studied English for five years or more.The students generally appear to be quite motivated toward improving their language skills. Moreover,most students demonstrate personal initiative,perseverance and good self-management skills.This is probably due to the typically unstructured study experience of Italian universities as compared to their Anglo-Saxon counterparts.In most courses,class attendance is not mandatory.Students may prepare for final examinations on their own on the basis of a course syllabus and reading materials list,with essentially no formal feedback on progress throughout the term.Therefore, academic success is closely linked to self-discipline and self-monitoring.Given this scenario,there would seem to be a great deal of potential for extensive reading in English.However,informal observations in this teaching environment suggest that reading frequency is indeed quite low,with very few`exceptions'.The first step towards understanding this apparent discrepancy is to achieve a clearer under-standing of the actual reading frequency and attitudes relating to reading in English. This knowledge may then be used to develop measures to effectively implement an extensive reading programme,with particular emphasis on encouraging students to read books,in addition to other less voluminous types or reading materials such as magazines or newspapers.Therefore,the purpose of this study was to gain further insight by conducting a survey that addressed the following research questions.

1.How frequently do students read in English?

2.What are students'attitudes toward reading in English?

3.What are the reasons that may limit frequency?

4.Which factors may influence frequency and attitudes?

METHOD

Subjects

The subjects of the study were a group of182EFL students(93males and89 females),corresponding to nine regularly-scheduled classes.

Survey instrument

A22item questionnaire was designed specifically for this study to collect data on frequency and attitude(dependent variables)relating to extensive reading in English, and the factors(independent variables)believed to influence them:

a.Years of previous English study(items3±4)

b.Past access to English books(item5)

138CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI

c.Encouragement to read in English for pleasure(item6)

d.Self-perception of reading ability in English(items7-8)

e.Experience in an English-speaking culture(items9±10)

f.Frequency of reading books in Italian(items11±12).

These variables were selected on the basis of indications from previous research (Walberg and Tsai,1985;Greaney and Hegarty,1987;Davis et al,1992;Mokhtari and Sheorey,1994),as well as from personal teaching experience.For example, variables a and d involve aspects of English proficiency level,which would pre-sumably play a role in reading frequency and attitude.The remaining variables(b,c, e and f)were identified with particular reference to this learning environment: experience in the Anglo-Saxon culture(which many Italian students have)and factors related to the value of reading both in English and Italian,which appeared to be important with these business students who may not be especially literature-oriented.

The questionnaire was formulated in the native language of the students in an effort to avoid possible failure to completely understand items(a complete English translation is provided in the Appendix).It was structured into three parts.Part1 included general data and probed for baseline information relating to the first five independent variables.Part2was dedicated to frequency.It included the last independent variable(frequency of reading books in Italian)and three items(13±15) on frequency of reading in English.The latter was measured also in terms of reading volume and the types of materials read,which in addition to books,included magazines,newspapers and lyrics to pop/rock songs.Part3inquired about attitude (items16±21),measuring such aspects as the desire to read more,the degree of willingness to find time to read and an awareness of the value of reading in English. Reasons for not reading were also surveyed since they imply a certain attitude, especially from the viewpoint of reading potential.For example,a student who reads little in English primarily because of lack of access to reading materials or knowledge of what to read would presumably have a more favourable attitude than one who does not read because of low interest or unwillingness to find time.The last item of the questionnaire(22)was included simply as a source of information for future library acquisitions about the genres of books students would be interested in reading (results not reported in this paper).

The validity of the questionnaire was addressed in several ways.Ten-minute face-to-face interviews were carried out with20students in a preliminary phase one month prior to development of the survey instrument(methodology suggested by Converse and Presser,1988).The purpose was to obtain some general indications concerning frequency/attitude and to inquire about what types of English materials students may read in order to focalise the most important variables and discover possible new ones.In fact,it was through these interviews that the four types of reading materials(books,magazines,newspapers and lyrics to pop/rock songs)were identified and the variables`past access to English books'and`encouragement to read'emerged.According to a technique suggested by Gambrell et al(1996)for the confirmation of construct validity,a preliminary version of the questionnaire was submitted to six colleagues of university-level EFL instruction who were asked to sort the items into categories according to the dependent and independent variables they were intended to measure.Incorrectly sorted items were either rephrased or

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL139

eliminated.In order to lower the risk of automatic response patterns,a4-point response scale which deliberately omits a middle,non-committal option was implemented,rather than a5-point Likert-type scale(McKenna and Kear,1990). Similarly,the response alternative order was purposely varied.Some options proceed from most frequent/positive to least frequent/positive,while others follow a reversed pattern from`least'to`most'(Gambrell et al,1996).Finally,the questionnaire was piloted with a group of15students.

To confirm the reliability of the instrument,the test-retest method was used(as described by Best and Kahn,1993).The questionnaire was administered a second time to20students from the original group of182six weeks after the first admin-istration.The reliability coefficient(Pearson r)was0.89.

Administration procedures

The questionnaire was administered to students during the last20minutes of regular class periods.Students were first given a brief verbal explanation of the purpose of the survey,followed by specific clarification of the term`leisure-time reading in English'(i.e.voluntary reading done during free time without any type of academic or work-related follow-up activity).All of the completed questionnaires were collected immediately at the end of the class.None of the students declined to participate.

Analysis

The4-point response scale operationally defined all variables.Four points were awarded for the highest frequency/quantity/intensity or most positive degree of the characteristic measured and one point was assigned for the lowest frequency/ quantity/intensity or least positive degree.For example,items9and10measured experience in an English-speaking country according to length and purpose of stay; tourism/vacation was considered the least intense language contact and was assigned one point,while conducting real-life business was considered the most intense and was assigned four points.Most items offered a closed response format from four options,although three items asked students to rank options.In item14,students were asked to rank the four types of reading materials(books,magazines,news-papers and lyrics to pop/rock songs)according to which they read most often.The maximum score of4was given if`books'were ranked highest,3for`magazines',2for `newspapers'and1for`lyrics to pop/rock songs'.The rationale behind this scoring criteria is based on the connection between volume and frequency in the context of extensive reading.For example,it is assumed that most books that an adult would read would be more voluminous with a more extensive development of a given topic than articles from magazines,newspapers or lyrics found on compact disks. Therefore,a student who reads books more frequently than other less voluminous materials is likely to dedicate more time to reading,and thus was assigned maximum points for frequency.Items17and20asked subjects to rank three options from a list of six:three reasons that limit book reading in English and three reasons why they consider reading in English important.In scoring these items,it was necessary to make certain assumptions based on the underlying implications of the options selected.For example,with reference to item17,a person who has a relatively

favourable attitude toward reading books in English should be willing to find some time for it.Moreover,a student who cites `lack of time'as the reason for limited reading implies lower reading potential than a student who instead cites `no access to books'or `not knowing what to read'.Therefore,the three reasons (a,c and e ±Type A)which were not time-related were assumed to reflect a more favourable attitude.The remaining three reasons (b,d,and f ±Type B)based only on lack of time or disinterest were considered to indicate a relatively less favourable attitude.Similarly,for item 20,three options (b,d and f ±Type A)revealed a broader awareness of the value of reading in English and its importance in ongoing literacy.The other three options (a,c and e ±Type B)corresponded to an essentially short-term or utilitarian view.These two items were scored as follows:4points:all option Type A responses

3points:two option Type A responses/one option type B response 2points:two option Type B responses/one option type A response 1point:

all option Type B responses

RESULTS

The descriptive data collected from the questionnaires provided information con-cerning the actual reading frequency and attitudes,as well as the reasons that might limit reading (research questions

1±3).

Figure 1.L2reading frequency index

140CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI

To measure L2reading frequency,the scores of the three corresponding items (13,14and 15)were added together for each questionnaire.Scores ranged from a minimum of 1(1point for item 13,while skipping items 14and 15)to a maximum of 12(4points for each item).The mean score was 4.7.Figure 1shows the resulting reading frequency index.

The same procedure was used to measure L2reading attitude ,based on the combined score of the six items (16±21)designed to measure different aspects of reading attitude.Scores ranged from a minimum of 3(1point for items 16,19and 21,while skipping items 17,18and 20)to a maximum of 24(4points for each item).The mean score was 18.The reading attitude index is illustrated in Figure 2.

The individual scores of the frequency and attitude sub-scales were then compared in order to understand how these two variables might interact in forming student reading profiles.Ranges were established by taking into consideration the mean scores of the two subscales and an analysis of what various scores actually revealed.The following sub-scale score ranges resulted,indicating high versus low frequency and positive versus negative attitude:

.high frequency score of 8or above .low frequency score of 5or below .positive attitude score of 18or above .

negative attitude score of 12or

below

Figure 2.L2reading attitude index

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL 141

Thus,for the frequency sub-scale,a score of 5was considered to indicate low frequency.This is because it was possible to score up to three points by only occasionally reading lyrics to pop songs,and no books,magazines or newspapers whatsoever.Instead,to score 8or above it was necessary to read magazines or books at least twice a month.For the attitude sub-scale,a score of 12or below (an average score of 2or below on each of the 6items)essentially expressed a less favourable or,at best,uncertain view of reading in English.A score of 18or above (an average score of 3or above on each item)indicated a positive attitude.

On this basis,frequency counts of various sub-scale combinations were taken and,as illustrated in Figure 3,three key student reading profiles emerged.The profile of low frequency/positive attitude (41.8%)represents the largest group of students.Relatively few students correspond to high frequency/positive attitude (12.1%)and low frequency/negative attitude (6.6%).As to be expected,the remaining 39.5%fall somewhere in the `middle ground'of frequency and attitude.However,keeping in mind the instructional aims of this study,the more sharply defined reading profiles provide clearer indications in terms of reading potential.

A separate analysis of item 17which identified reasons that limit reading in English resulted in further attitudinal indications.Percentages and ranking of reasons are shown in Table 1.The data indicate that lack of time is perceived as the most important reason for limited reading in English.In fact,the two combined time-related options account for almost half of the total responses (48.1%).Moreover,with reference to the 29.4%who had cited `lack of time due to studies',61.9%of them ranked it as the first reason.The third and fourth most frequently cited reasons referred to `logistical'problems,such as `no access to books'and `not knowing what to read',which together represent almost 30%of the total

responses.

Figure 3.Key L2reading profiles

142CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI

Relatively few students indicated`too difficult to understand'(12.5%)and`no desire to read in English'(8.1%).

Further analysis of item20revealed a different aspect of student attitudes:their level of awareness of the broader value of reading in English,as opposed to a short-term pragmatic view.Table2illustrates that when students were asked why they considered it important,the two reasons most frequently cited were`to acquire a wider vocabulary'and`to enhance literacy in general',accounting for about58%of the total responses.These two reasons,together with the other reason indicating a broader awareness('to learn about other cultures'),represented over70%of all responses.In addition,73.2%of the students who had cited`to acquire wider a vocabulary'ranked it as the first reason.

In order to gain further insight into factors that may have some influence on reading frequency and attitudes in this instructional context(research question4), multiple regression analysis was carried out.In the process of selecting variables as best predictors for the regression model,correlations were first obtained.On this basis,two questionnaire items were then selected to represent the dependent variable frequency:item13(frequency of reading any type of English materials)and item15 (number of English books read in the last12months).Another two were selected for the dependent variable attitude:item17(attitude based on reasons cited for limited reading)and item19(opinion expressed on the importance of reading).Separate regression analyses were run for the two items representing each of the dependent variables as a way to reinforce any significant relationships if the same items representing independent variables were correlated with both.

Table1.Reasons limiting extensive reading in English(item17).

1.Reasons cited%

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,ck of time due to studies

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,ck of time in general

c.not knowing what to read

d.no access to English books

e.too difficult to understand

f.no desire to read in English

g.other reason 29.4 18.7 17.2 12.5 12.5 8.1 1.6

Total100

2.Ranking of reasons1st reason

%2nd reason

%

3rd reason

%

Total

%

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,ck of time due to studies

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,ck of time in general

c.not knowing what to read

d.no access to English books

e.too difficult to understand

f.no desire to read in English

g.other reason 61.9

32.0

16.9

7.7

52.3

9.5

12.5

32.2

51.5

33.7

29.2

16.9

31.0

12.5

5.9

16.5

49.4

63.1

30.8

59.5

75.0

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL143

Table 3illustrates the results of regression analysis with the two items representing the dependent variable frequency .The same two independent variables (represented by items 9and 12)correlated significantly with both items.`Time spent in an English-speaking country'(item 9)was significant (t =2.478,p 50.05[item 13]and t =2.087,p 50.05[item 15])as was item 12`number of books read in Italian in the last 12months'(t =3.608,p 50.05[item 13]and t =3.282,p 50.05[item 15]).This means that the more time spent abroad and the more books read in Italian,the more frequently students read in English.For item 15,the independent variable `past access to English books'was very close to the significance level (t =1.960,p %0.05),suggesting that students who were provided with English books to read in the past,may tend to read more frequently in English in the present.In addition,for item 13,the attribute variable `sex'was also significant (t =2.094,p 50.05).Further separate analysis of this item revealed that the males were much more frequent readers of other types of materials,in particular magazines and newspapers,than the females.

Table 4shows the results of regression analyses for the two items representing attitude .The independent variable `years of previous study in English'(item 3)was negatively correlated with both items (t =2.095,p 50.05[item 17]and t =2.231,p 50.05[item 19]);the more years students had studied English at school or university,the less willing they are to find time for reading and the less they consider it important (and vice versa).For item 17,again the independent variable `number of books read in Italian'(item 12)was significantly correlated (t =2.832,p 50.05),suggesting that the more books students read during leisure time in Italian,the more

Table 2.Reasons why reading in English is important (item 20).

1.Reasons cited %a.acquire wider vocabulary b.enhance general literacy https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for career

d.learn about other cultures

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for English course

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for other courses

g.

other reason

31.426.114.812.810.73.60.6Total

100

2.Ranking of reasons

1st reason

%2nd reason

%3rd reason

%Total %a.acquire wider vocabulary b.enhance general literacy https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for career

d.learn about other cultures

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for English course

https://www.360docs.net/doc/934990824.html,eful for other courses

g.other reason

73.222.114.314.97.15.333.3

20.750.028.631.441.136.8±

6.12

7.957.153.751.857.966.7

100100100100100100100

144

CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI

willing they are to find time to do the same in English.For item 19,the independent variable `purpose of stay in an English-speaking country'(articulated into vacation,study,part-time work or business)emerged as significantly correlated (t =2.593,p 50.05).More specifically,students whose stay in an English-speaking country was for reasons of study or work consider reading in English more important than students who had never been abroad or if so,only for tourism or vacation.

With reference to the results of regression analysis in general,it should be noted that,in any case,correlation does not suggest cause,but merely indicates a more or less strong relationship.

Table 3.Multiple regression:frequency of extensive reading in English.1.Frequency of reading any type of English materials (item 13)Independent variables

Beta

B SE of B t(173)p-value*a.Intercept b.Sex

c.Age 1:20±25

d.Age 2:26±30

e.Private course/lessons

f.Past access to English books

g.Self-rating of reading ability

h.Time spent in English-speaking country

i.N.of books read in Italian in last 12months R =0.4332R 2=0.1876

Adjusted R 2=0.1500

F (8,173)=4.9955p 50.00001Std.error of estimate:0.82150

0.150070.296570.466170.04440.02990.10870.18440.2714

1.69510.266770.573870.916870.03780.02680.13090.14850.2058

0.57810.12730.50600.50910.06610.06770.08630.05990.0571

2.29322.094371.134071.801070.57140.39521.51732.4782

3.6081

0.00380.0377*0.25840.07350.56840.69320.13100.0141*0.0004*

2.Number of English books read in the last 12months (item 15)Independent variables

Beta

B SE of B t(173)p-value*a.Intercept b.Sex

c.Age 1:20-25

d.Age 2:26-30

e.Private course/lessons

f.Past access to English books

g.Self-rating of English ability

h.Time spent in English-speaking country

i.N.of books read in Italian in last 12months R =0.4525R 2=0.2047

Adjusted R 2=0.1680

F (8,173)=5.5684p 50.00000Std.error of estimate:0.686720.001270.049570.14500.11020.14690.02610.15370.2443

0.27330.001870.080970.24100.07920.11100.02660.10460.1565

0.48320.10640.42300.42560.05530.05660.07210.05010.0477

0.56550.016770.191370.56621.43311.96030.36862.08743.2821

0.57240.98670.84850.57200.15360.05160.71290.0383*0.0012*

n =182

*Significant at p 50.05

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL

145

DISCUSSION

The reading frequency and attitude indexes,in addition to the three key reading profiles identified,indicate that while most students have not developed the habit of reading in English (low mean frequency score of 4.7),their attitude toward it is actually quite positive (high mean score of 18.0).In order to find a plausible explanation for the low frequency,it is necessary to examine further the data collected on the reasons why students do little reading in English for pleasure.Since almost half the students cited time-related reasons for limited reading in English,

Table 4.Multiple regression:attitude toward extensive reading in English.

1.Attitude based on degree of willingness to find time to read as implied by reasons cited for limited extensive reading (item 17)Independent variables

Beta

B SE of B t(173)p-value*a.Intercept b.Sex

c.Age 1:20±25

d.Age 2:26±30

e.Years of previous study

f.Past access to English books

g.Self-rating of reading ability

h.Purpose of stay in English-speaking country i.N of books read in Italian in last 12months R =0.3671R 2=0.1348

Adjusted R 2=0.0948

F (8,173)=3.3696,p 50.00129Std.error of estimate:0.80830

70.11590.03820.100170.157970.098970.11070.07020.2204

2.898670.19640.07050.187870.165170.084370.12710.06290.1594

0.57230.12530.48950.49590.07880.06530.08690.06630.0563

5.064971.56810.14400.378672.095171.290471.46290.94832.8322

0.00000.11870.88560.70540.0376*0.19860.14530.34430.0052*

2.Opinion on importance of extensive reading in English (item 19)Independent variables

Beta

B SE of B t(173)p-value*a.Intercept b.Sex

c.Age 1:20-25

d.Age 2:26-30

e.Years of previous study

f.Past access to English books

g.Self-rating of reading ability

h.Purpose of stay in English-speaking country i.N.of books read in Italian in last 12months R =0.3178R 2=0.1010

Adjusted R 2=0.0594

F (8,173)=2.4299p 50.01633Std.error of estimate:0.6255470.091970.376570.214270.17140.03120.00600.195770.0860

4.372670.118270.527470.305070.13610.02020.00520.133070.0472

0.44290.09690.37880.38380.06100.05060.06720.05130.0436

9.872771.219371.392270.794872.23120.39940.07782.593771.0843

0.00000.22440.16560.42780.0269*0.69000.93810.0103*0.2797

n =182

*Significant at p 50.05

146CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL147 it would seem that this is a question of low priority among these students who are apparently unable or unwilling to find sufficient time for it.It is interesting to note that reading frequency in the native language is also relatively low.A separate descriptive analysis of item11revealed that11%never read books in Italian for pleasure and only23.6%are regular book readers in Italian.Thus,low reading frequency in L1may also carry over into L2.With reference to both frequency and attitude,the fact that about one-third of the students indicated`logistical'reasons for limited reading(`no access to English books'and/or`not knowing what to read')is quite encouraging.It might be assumed that if these obstacles were overcome,at least some students could be`won over'to reading.

An explanation for the generally favourable attitude and high level of awareness of the value of reading English,reaching far beyond a short-term utilitarian vision,can perhaps be found in the growing Anglo-Saxon influence on the Italian culture.For example,the Italian language is full of English loanwords and previously unknown concepts such as`fast food'and`shopping malls'are now widespread.This trend, together with an understanding of the increasing importance of international relations in relation to employment prospects,may be responsible for this positive outcome.

From the multiple regression analysis,it seems that two factors have a determining influence since they were significantly correlated with both attitude and frequency. The first,relating to the habit of reading books in Italian,would seem to support the idea that the factors that apparently contribute to moulding a person into a`reader' in L1can also be transferred into reading in a foreign language.Studies in the native language with children have suggested that home environment factors(e.g.parental encouragement and modelling,and availability of reading materials in the home) also influence reading attitude and frequency(Walberg and Tsai,1985;Greaney and Hegarty,1987).The strength of the second factor('experience in the target language culture')can perhaps be explained in two ways.First,students who take advantage of an opportunity to spend some time in an English-speaking country are probably already more motivated toward the language and culture to begin with.This motivation is likely to be enhanced by the experience itself,which could in turn spark more interest in reading in English.Second,the cross-cultural experience helps students build schemata for the English language and culture that they can draw on in order to increase their comprehension and enjoyment when reading.Davis et al (1992)instead found no significant correlation between contact with target culture and attitude towards reading foreign language literature among American college students.They suggest that the content of much foreign language literature may be too far removed from the authentic cultural experiences of students who have travelled.Therefore,it provides few opportunities for activating schemata and may thus constitute a source of frustration.However,this study was undertaken in a clearly different context and with a genre restriction that is incompatible with the concept of extensive reading.

The most unexpected finding was the negative correlation of years of previous English study in both of the attitude items regressed.I had anticipated that the longer students had studied English at school or university(probably corresponding to higher ability level and more exposure to the language and culture),the more positive their attitude toward reading would be.Perhaps the attitude of students who have studied English for many years has become`fossilised'and inclined towards defeat-

148CRAWFORD CAMICIOTTOLI ism.This notion seems to be supported by a separate analysis of the two question-naire items dealing with self-perception of reading ability.Despite several years of language study,57.1%of the students perceived their general comprehension level as ranging from average to low(item7).Only53.8%felt that they could almost always `get the gist'of what they read in English(item8).Thus,the rather low confidence level may discourage students from associating reading in English with a pleasant leisure-time activity,causing them to be less willing to find time to read and less convinced of its importance.This idea would also be supported by the other side of the negative correlation:fewer years of previous English study are related to more positive attitudes.Students who have studied English for fewer years were older and more mature when they began studying,and freer from possible conditioning experiences of middle and high school.However,it would be necessary to investigate further both attitudes about the quality of past EFL instruction and the specific nature of students'reading problems in order to better understand this seemingly paradoxical outcome.

Two variables were consistently and surprisingly non-significant and often poorly correlated with both frequency and attitude:`self-perception of reading ability in English'and`past encouragement to read in English'.I had expected the first vari-able(probably corresponding to more/less confidence and ease in reading)to have a significant positive correlation with frequency and attitude.The lack of correlation with both variables may be connected to the low level of confidence in reading ability and the implied negative perception of previous English instruction mentioned above. The significant correlation of the attribute variable`sex',indicating that the males were much more frequent readers of other types of materials(in particular,maga-zines and newspapers)than the females could be related to what I have noticed as different career aspirations.The males seem to be more interested in international business enterprise which is often addressed in the British and American business press.On the other hand,the females tend to aspire to careers in accounting or public administration,normally in an Italian context.

CONCLUSIONS

From an instructional point of view,the most encouraging result of this survey was the approaching significance level of the variable`past access to English books'for frequency.The only previous related research that had taken access into consider-ation involved children at the level of native language(Walberg and Tsai,1985; Greaney and Hegarty,1987).However,the results of this study suggest that access (both past and present)may continue to have an important role at the level of higher education and perhaps deserves more attention.Moreover,unlike other factors which were shown to have some influence,access to reading materials is something that can be more easily controlled in the learning environment.Therefore,priority should be given to furnishing classrooms and libraries with a wide variety of books and other types of literature as a means of encouraging students to read in English. To deal with the problem`lack of time',which was the most cited reason for limited reading in English,it is important to investigate ways of integrating an extensive reading programme into the curriculum.Since the current syllabus already focuses on reading strategies for the business press and economics textbooks,an extensive

EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL149 reading programme would constitute a further application and consolidation of these skills.For example,students could be required to read a self-selected English book during a semester and then have the opportunity to participate in informal discussion groups.

Once an extensive reading programme has been implemented,research in this area should continue.Previous reports on extensive reading programmes(Davis,1995; Constantino,1994)have indicated some beneficial effects,mainly with reference to attitudes.However,since these were of an essentially non-empirical pre-experimental nature,it would be worthwhile to set up an experimental study in an effort to quantify improvements in reading skills and vocabulary acquisition.Moreover,it might also be interesting to conduct a second survey to determine student reactions to the programme and then compare it to this study to identify possible changes in reading attitudes.

Finally,the dearth of studies on reading habits and attitudes in the specific context of EFL instruction in higher education indicates that considerably more research is warranted.This study was limited to Italian business majors;a survey of students of other nationalities and disciplines could produce entirely different results.Moreover, the diverse findings of the few existing studies in related contexts suggest that learn-ing environment(EFL versus ESL versus native English-speakers learning a foreign language)may have an important influence.Further studies would allow a com-parison of the results of different settings that could give important instructional insight on the potential role of environmental variables.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank Francesca Pierotti and Giampiero M.Gallo of the University of Florence Department of Statistics for their assistance and advice.

REFERENCES

BEST,J.W.and KAHN,J.V.(1993)Research in education.Needham Heights MA:Allyn and Bacon. CONVERSE,J.and PRESSER,S.(1988)Sage university paper series on quantitative applications in the social sciences:n.63.Survey questions:handcrafting the standardized questionnaire.Beverly Hills:Sage Publications.

CONSTANTINO,R.(1994)Pleasure reading helps,even if readers don't believe it.Journal of Reading,37,504±505.

DAVIS,C.(1995)Extensive reading:an expensive extravagance?ELT Journal,49,329±335.

DAVIS,J.N.,KLINE R.R.,CARBON GORELL,L.and HSIEH,G.(1992)Readers and foreign languages:a survey of undergraduate attitudes toward the study of literature.The Modern Language Journal,76,320±332. DAY,R.R.,OMURA,C.and HIRAMATSU,M.(1991)Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading.Reading in a Foreign Language,7,541±549.

DUPUY,B.,TSE,L.and COOK,T.(1996)Bringing books into the classroom:first steps in turning college-level ESL students into readers.TESOL Journal,5,10±15.

GAMBRELL,L.B.,MARTIN PALMER,B.,CODLING,R.M.and ANDERS MAZZONI,S.(1996)Assessing motivation to read.The Reading Teacher,49,518±533.

GREANEY,V.and HEGARTY,M.(1987)Correlates of leisure-time reading.Journal of Research in Reading,10, 3±20.

HAFIZ,F.M.and TUDOR,I.(1989)Extensive reading and the development of language skills.ELT Journal, 43,4±13.

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KONOPAK,B.,SHEARD,C.,LONGMAN,D.,LYMAN,B.,SLATON,E.,ATKINSON,R.and THAMES,D.(1987)Incidental vs.intentional word learning from context.Reading Psychology,8,7±21.

KRASHEN,S.(1989)We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading:additional evidence for the input hypothesis.The Modern Language Journal,73,440±463.

MASON,B.and KRASHEN,S.(1997)Extensive reading in English as a Foreign Language.System,25,91±102. MCKENNA,M.C.and KEAR,D.J.(1990)Measuring attitude toward reading:a new tool for teachers.The Reading Teacher,43,626±639.

MOKHTARI,K.and SHEOREY,R.(1994)Reading habits of university EFL students at different levels of English proficiency and education.Journal of Research in Reading,17,46±61.

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POLAK,J.and KRASHEN,S.(1988)Do we need to teach spelling?The relationship between spelling and voluntary reading among community college ESL students.TESOL Quarterly,22,141±146. ROBB,T.N.and SUSSER,B.(1989)Extensive reading vs.skills building in an EFL context.Reading in a Foreign Language,5,239±251.

SARAGI T.,NATION,P.and MEISTER,G.(1978).Vocabulary learning and reading.System6,70±78. WALBERG,H.J.and TSAI,S.(1985)Correlates of reading achievement and attitude:a national assessment study.Journal of Educational Research,78,159±167.

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Address for correspondence:B ELINDA C RAWFORD C AMICIOTTOLI,Faculty of Economics,University of Florence,Via Curtatone,1,50123Firenze±FI(Italy). E-mail:bcrawford@tin.it

APPENDIX:ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF EXTENSIVE READING QUESTIONNAIRE

QUESTIONNAIRE ON READING IN ENGLISH

The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect information on the habits,motivations and opinions of the students enrolled in the current English course of the Faculty of Economics concerning reading in English during leisure time.This means reading in English that is not for academic purposes (for course require-ments or exam preparation)and not for professional reasons.

The questionnaire has 22items and takes 10-15minutes to fill out.Please do not sign your name.All answers will be anonymous.Thank you for taking the time to answer these questions thoughtfully and sincerely.

Instructions:please place a check ([)in the space before the option that applies to

you EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL 151

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EXTENSIVE READING IN EFL153