外文翻译

外文翻译
外文翻译

材料加工技术杂志2(09200927222715–)

杂志首页:https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/locate/jmatprotec

热分布电阻对焊

N.F.H. Kerstens a,?, I.M. Richardson b

荷兰金属研究所(n.i.m.r.),mekelweg2,邮政信箱5008,2600,代尔夫特,荷兰

代尔夫特理工大学,连接技术和机械的行为,mekelweg2,2628光盘,代尔夫特,荷兰

文章历史:2008年3月3日收到、2008年6月5日收到修改稿、2008年6月9日接受。

关键词:电阻对焊、电阻热、S460MC、QSTE460MC、接触电阻、热分布、

电阻对焊(RUW)已用于轮毂制造许多年。最近,伴随着对关于电阻对焊知识的需求的增加,有一种趋势,就是要改进生产方法、实用高强度材料。其中一个现象使我们观测到,在焊接过程中,电阻对焊是一个不均匀的热分布。这项工作探讨潜在原因是对热点的形成进行探究、比较实验结果与预测结果、从简单的热模型来说明问题的重要性、添加足够的过程控制和减少焊缝排斥率。

?2008爱思唯尔公司保留所有权利

一,导言

众所周知,在电阻对焊过程中,待焊零件上的热是电阻所产生的电流聚集成的;Min et al. (2000),例如,表明了这是一个结合了阻力基础材料和阻力的联合接口有助于材料经历热剖面。电阻对焊不同于其他许多焊接,在过程中,没有多余的材料例如屏蔽气体或填充材料的要求;因此,冶金焊接是唯一确定的母材和应用热变形周期的方法。在这个过程中,相当大的机械压力是需要把加热部件锻造在一起的。

这种焊接工艺是一个重要的工具,在生产钢轮辋的汽车行业中,其中,目前的知识,主要是基于经验。焊接时,受热不均匀的现象是在有边缘焊接样品附近的热点的附近存在。这种不均匀性可导致低强度的焊接,特别是当焊接高强度钢的时候。在本文中我们探讨焊接过程中的行为,解释不同的焊接参数对温度分布沿接头线的影响。两种材料在现实中他们永远也不会这样。有一个理想的表面,只

有几个原子会带到均衡距离在最初的接触的时候。焊接时进一步受损的氧化层或污染物目前在表面上。根据梅斯勒(1993,1999)有两改善情况的方法,第一是申请热,第二是适用压力。热量帮助击退污染,分解氧化层和降低屈服强度。压力帮助破坏污染层,压裂氧化物和塑性变形表面粗糙,增加一些原子以到达平衡间距。

1.1 接触电阻

主要在加热电阻对焊是由于焦耳加热;一个小的温度升高而变形的样品也时有发生,然而,这是忽视本作为其影响变化的温度分布,如果沿着线,变形预计是很小的。有两个对焦耳加热有贡献的因素:体积电阻Rb和接触电阻Rc(表1)。

Palotas和马尔金(1999)描述了一个有限元模型,该电阻对焊工艺的其中一个电阻采用线性温度依赖和温度确定的时间和金额时空,前者占焦耳加热而后者由于界面问题只占局部加热。不幸的是,没有推导给出了方程的采用。同样,在有限元模型构造性点焊的feulvarch等人.(2004)接触电阻不明确的处理,也不是一个空间变量的接触电阻分析模型,包括陈和法生(2006)。Rudzitis等人确定表面粗糙度对电接触电阻点焊的影响是从机械表面接触来分析的,表明接触电阻成反比来施加压力。

Rc=﹛krρE2/[ P2a1(1-v) 2]2﹜(Ra/Sm1) (1)

a1是电极点焊接触半径。ρ是材料的电阻率。kr表面各向异性系数。Ra是表面粗糙度。Sm1是表面峰间距参数。E是杨氏模量。v是泊松比.。一个缺点是这种提法是很难获得适当的值,延长表达大接触面积。另一种说法是由Batu等人提出,其中涉及的阻力对一些接触粗糙,平均粗糙的半径和粗糙的中心之间的距离做了分析,构建实证模型。

Rc=(ρ1+ρ2)(1/4na2+3π/32nL)(2)

ρ1和ρ2是被加入金属的体积电阻率。平均接触行为的接触面并与粗糙变形的作用力与材料的屈服应力,接触电阻的单位面积的计算应用方面的压力和体密度。

Rca=0.25(ρ1+ρ2) [(πσy/ηP)1/2+3π/4η1/2] (3)

σy是屈服应力。η是接触微凸体密度。Rca显示温度依赖通过产量应力,粗糙的密度和材料的电阻率。Batu2001年采用乙状结肠功能适合的经验数据描述温度依赖特性,因此得到接触微凸体密度。

Holm (1967)得出一个类似的依赖的接触电阻的接触面积和电阻率。

Rc=ρ/2a0 (4)

然而据推测,联系领域传输electrode-force氧化的自由,这是唯一的部分对的。总是会有氧–氧化物和氧–金属化物接触是不导电的同时传送electrode-force,这些结果在计算接触电阻时太低,在初始阶段的焊接,直到焊接面积上所有的氧化物被除去。

Zwolsman(1991)andzwolsman和vroomans(1987)声明表面压力等于fups/20,这是同为布氏硬度材料(卡里斯特,1994)。结合(4)式,结果在接触电阻。

Rc=(ρ/2)√(πHB/Fups)(5)

注意,接触电阻nowrelated的材料性能介绍了维氏硬度。因为血红蛋白是依靠温度来的。(4)式由zwolsman和vroomans在1987年改写的,作为温度依赖的接触电阻。

Rc(T)=(0.5ρRT)(T/T RT)√{(πHB RT/ Fups)[(Ts-T)/(Ts-T RT)]} ?T≤Ts (6)

HB RT是室温下材料的布氏硬度。T是实际温度。T RT是室内温度。Ts是软化温度。主要的优势是这个方程是用钢筋混凝土材料,温度依赖性和所有必要的参数是已知或者可以很容易地测量。

在焊接界面温度的增加,降低了接触电阻,这意味着,钢筋混凝土也有一个时间依赖性通过引入温度。最初的热量积聚在焊接界面;当软化温度达到,接触电阻接近零和散装阻力占主导地位。在这些条件下,散热仍然集中在联合线,由于温度依赖的体积电阻率,其中,根据Holm(1967)随温度以下的表达:

Rb=(Z/A)ρb(T)=(Z/A){ρRT[1+α(T-T RT)]}(7)

Z是身体接触的长度。A是接触面积。α是导热系数电阻率。

一些作者包括中田英寿等测量了接触电阻。(1975),报告值范围在70–120毫欧姆,在electrode-force103公斤为10毫米直径的钢筋。这些值从20下降到

30毫欧姆,为electrode-force增加至3×103公斤。类似的测量是由宋等。(2005)人,报告的电阻为300毫欧姆,从100 MPa下降到60在300 Mpa的时候;接触电阻也证明是随温度的升高而降低。测量之间的差异可以归因于不同材料组成和表面制备。

一个简单的热模型建立在这项工作中,探索了沿中心线的温度分布,如下所述。这些表达式提供了一个深入了解的关系在焊接参数(电流分布,电压,顶锻压力)和热发展之间,在联合线上。

二.方法论

为焊接实验在这一测试工作设施建设的Fontijne Grotnes,Fontijne Holland Welder?被采用。它的目的是模拟焊接轮辋,特别是优化控制策略。图1示意图overviewof夹紧系统需要保持车轮的边缘,运用必要的压力显示;箭头所指方向的主要压力在每个阶段的焊接工艺。

图1示意图–夹紧安排:(一)初始阶段,(二)材料在界面合在一起加热(三)最终打破了和联合形成。

照片的测试设备是显示在图2。

图2–(一)Fontijne荷兰电焊机?(二)一个原理概述附件立场的热电偶(红色十字架)和电压探针(黑点)

焊接过程控制的应用加强方案,使焊接参数焊接周期变化。表2例显示焊接方案。这个方案有四个步骤,是在一定的变形发生或经过一定的加工时间达成。四个步骤是:(i)按表面联合在一起,尽量减少它们之间的差距(ii)把材料加热到0.3

毫米的变形或达到屈服极限(iii) 采用镦力量建立联合(iv) 等待步骤介绍,焊接部分冷却以增加强度。

2.1 材料和测量

本研究采用的材料是s460mc ,2毫米厚,这是qste460tm的新的诠释,化学成分见表3。

样品1的大小是75mm*120mm,样品2的是75mm*60mm。对样品进行了剪切和边缘碾磨,消除由于剪切变形,影响表面形貌和硬度的接口,也改变了接触电阻。温度测量技术;二维谱录了前视红外热视觉a40m热摄像头和点测量与标准0.25毫米直径K型热电偶。热电偶电线连接到样品是通过一个放电点焊机。用于测量电压,多芯铜导线连接成对放置3任何一方的联合线,起点7.5毫米从样品边缘连续对之间的间隔10毫米。该热电偶是附中心之间的电压测量电极对,如图2b。表3–s460mc钢的化学成分。

Dl716横河数据记录仪采用电压和温度测量。电压测量条件使用无源滤波器(10?4时间常数)诱导信号噪声消除逆变器。

2.2 建模

有限元模型是获得深入的影响(采用不同的焊接参数对焊缝区加热)。商业marc-mentat代码是用来建立一个三维网格的样本组成的8400元不等的大小从0.15 毫米×0.9毫米×1毫米到6毫米×6毫米×6毫米大小的的与细网格接近的联合区。采用了一种0.01s的步长。以样品1(无接触接口)和样品2(与接触界面)为蓝本,无机械变形,探讨电输入参数依赖于温度。联合线模拟是通过改变体积电阻率的界面位置。由于缺乏可用支持s460mc的数据,Schwenk等人提出的材料的数据低碳双相钢的dp600阶段(包括温度依赖电阻,导热系数和比热容量)被采用。虽然有可能有所不同,dp600材料的数据仍然可以被用来探索的过程趋势。

三.结果与讨论

3.1 电压测量

在理想的情况下,在焊接过程中恒电流密度应该存在的关节的长度线会导致均匀加热。如果没有接口目前(例如,1片样品)只有体积电阻包有助于加热的样品,这是材料和温度变化,但要均匀通过横截面的样本,产生一个均匀的电流分布。测量电流分布在钢板是困难的,在电阻对焊时由于有限的访问加热位置,因此两端的电压下降明显的界面(之间的中间夹)是用来衡量在几个地点在试件宽度的(图乙)。在没有界面接触电阻时,样品温度均匀的启动,电流电压的任何差异必须直接观察。结果从七次电压测量电极对来看,图3所示为最初的0.25秒的焊接工艺。

图3–七测量位置沿长度的联合线在第一次0.25秒的焊接电压差。

这些表明,非均匀分布的样品宽度导致不均匀的电流分布。变化的电压不同职位之间的宽度联合在最初几十毫秒显示在图4,表明工艺重复性好。

图4–在焊缝长度上的样本电压分布。

从图4的最高平均差异的电压信号可以被认为是28%或30mv。在时间的电压差来衡量,温度的总样本增加了约2万。如果增加温度的样品负责28%不同的

电压,然后最大温度变化的宽度样本应在6K左右。电压变化主要是由于不均匀的电流分布。

为了一件样品,非均匀电流密度可造成in-homogeneities在材料或不均匀的电流分布在电极的现象。当焊接两件有接触电阻样品的界面时,电流的变化也可以出现变化,分布的变化的界面电阻造成的污染,不均匀变形或表面缺陷,例如造成毛刺的切削刀具。现在的问题是,是否初始电流变化。在焊接过程中,密度结果在非均匀热分布的地区,如果是这样就可以解释发展的热点。

3.2温度测量

期间和之后的焊接被观察样品总有一些温暖的地区靠近两端的接头线,如图5a所示。可以看出,一些熔化发生在热点位置显示。线上的温度超过35K就是观察的热电偶测量的热点。一些15毫米从样品边缘,和一点5毫米从样品边缘是多元化的,见图5b。温度上升速率通常介于1000和2000ks?1,冷却率已观察到40和1130ks。最高温度和加热和冷却率分别为观察到的热点。在本研究中,它通常出现75毫米宽的样本上的5至15mmfrom边缘的焊缝处。数量有限的带热电偶的温度测量可以在任何一个时间。作为替代方案,进行了测量与热成像摄像机,导致温度地图的完整联合区。虽然测量的分辨率是有限的,结果还是提供的比较有用的信息。从焊缝外形观察材料冷却器在中心的焊接与附近地区的边缘板,如图6所示。如果这个数字是比较电压测量(图4),有一个强有力的对应关系的电压分布和最高温度的联合线。在点的最高电压信号的地方也存在最高温度。一个相对简单的热模型可以提供一些洞察到加热的样品在焊接解释为什么这么热分布的观察。

图5–(一)一个电阻对焊的照片(二)两件样品温度分布。

图6–测量温度分布与热相机样品。

3.3 模型预测

有限元模型在3节中描述的是用来预测的温度依赖性的焊接样品的电输入参数。单一和2件样品是仿照考虑焦耳加热而无机械变形。以确定是否均匀加热的结果是不均匀的电流分布,样品1进行了检查。一个统一的电流密度,结果发现,加热均匀长度的联合线如图7(温度越高的明亮的颜色)。

图7–温度分布时,模拟电流均匀分布(一)和(二)时采用非均匀电流

分布密度。一个明亮的颜色代表一个较高的温度。

然而当初始电压分布,如图4所示,是用来明初始电流分布,温度的变化分布在联合长度系观察,图中,显示出coolerweld在该中心的样品热地区接近样品边缘。

计算和测量的温度记录是比较图8

图8–比较测量和计算温度历史和焊接过程中初始冷却样品。

两根线描绘的模型预测的代表节点两边的位置测量。这些结果表明,模型的样品1是合理的,它是有点令人吃惊的是,这样一个显着的相似性被发现有一个非常简单的热模型,这意味着所有重要的物理学是在目前的模型和证实,镦压无明显影响。这是不可能的,材料in-homogeneities会导致不一致的热分布;模型预测,因此支持这一概念的输入电流在焊接不均匀,表明了测量的初始电压(图4)。几种解释的可能的观察不均匀性取决于样本的1或2。样品1不具有接触电阻;然而,非均匀性可以产生作为一种结果,接触电阻变化的电极夹由于电极表面条件,污染或变化的夹紧力。夹具和电极大于焊接试样和轻微弯曲可能发生的压力下,导致了非均匀的接触电极和样品的表面,如示意图示于图9。

图9示意图–变形过程中电极夹紧,箭头表示夹紧压力,红线表示弯曲的电极的焊接样品。

样品2,一个非均匀镦粗压力分布在关节的长度也可以发挥作用。会有一个不同的接触电阻的联合区。因为没有变形的不均匀性模型,如果污染是目前在一个特定的位置,可以模拟通过改变当地的电阻率在仿照接口。为此,变化中的接触电阻是从样品边缘介绍在联合线毫米。几种不同的电阻率对温度分布沿联合线如图10所示。

图10–对温度分布在长度的线不同污染条件的影响。

高电阻率意味着有一绝缘污染就像一氧化氮或是局部的压力降低;相反,低电阻率模拟con-ducting会污染或更高压力的地方。该模型表明,任何现实的变化不管是否是独立的电阻率,电阻率较高或较低的,将有一个局部温度较高或接近污染物。

四.结论

实验研究,电阻对焊的发展已取得了一个简单的有限元模型来探讨焊接加热条件的影响。作为一个初步研究的结果,得出以下结论和意见:

?电压测量整个接头的界面显示,电流分布不均匀的过程中存在着电阻对焊,这是可重复的测量电压分布。在这些地点,所观察到的电压差和位置的高电压信号对应于较高温度的测量。

?简单的有限元模型,显示良好的协议与温度记录测量,样品1焊接过程中表明了所有重要的物理学的焊接过程中存在的模型。

?该模型表明,样品2,即在正常的焊接条件下,总是会有温暖的地区,目前在接口或差别接触压力,本应有任何污染。

?两种可能的解释观测到的不均匀的热分布在焊接过程中已提出,这些都是非均匀施加顶锻压力和非均匀施加夹紧压力。形成温暖地区始终是在进行电阻对焊操作。存在一个更高的峰值温度和冷却速度,也有较高的热点表明,一些钢,用一个简单的马氏体或贝氏体的形成机制,之后可以更容易形成脆性组织。

鸣谢

作者要感谢荷兰金属研究所(国立医学研究所)的财政支持,该项目(MC8.03174)和Fontijne Grotnes提供的电阻焊接设备和热相机图像。

工业设计专业英语英文翻译

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Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the

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外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.

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E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. (Sales Promotion;E--Marketing;Internet;Strategic Planning ) 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies;More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.

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Interaction design Moggridge Bill Interaction design,Page 1-15 USA Art Press, 2008 Interaction design (IxD) is the study of devices with which a user can interact, in particular computer users. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."[1] It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Interaction design defines the behavior (the "interaction") of an artifact or system in response to its users. Malcolm McCullough has written, "As a consequence of pervasive computing, interaction design is poised to become one of the main liberal arts of the twenty-first century." Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. As technologies are often overly complex for their intended target audience, interaction design aims to minimize the learning curve and to increase accuracy and efficiency of a task without diminishing usefulness. The objective is to reduce frustration and increase user productivity and satisfaction. Interaction design attempts to improve the usability and experience of the product, by first researching and understanding certain users' needs and then designing to meet and exceed them. (Figuring out who needs to use it, and how those people would like to use it.) Only by involving users who will use a product or system on a regular basis will designers be able to properly tailor and maximize usability. Involving real users, designers gain the ability to better understand user goals and experiences. (see also: User-centered design) There are also positive side effects which include enhanced system capability awareness and user ownership. It is important that the user be aware of system capabilities from an early stage so that expectations regarding functionality are both realistic and properly understood. Also, users who have been active participants in a product's development are more likely to feel a sense of ownership, thus increasing overall satisfa. Instructional design is a goal-oriented, user-centric approach to creating training and education software or written materials. Interaction design and instructional design both rely on cognitive psychology theories to focus on how users will interact with software. They both take an in-depth approach to analyzing the user's needs and goals. A needs analysis is often performed in both disciplines. Both, approach the design from the user's perspective. Both, involve gathering feedback from users, and making revisions until the product or service has been found to be effective. (Summative / formative evaluations) In many ways, instructional

外文翻译

Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/b16665571.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>

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Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much

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(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文:

DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.

外文翻译中文版(完整版)

毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计(论文)题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄

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