OpenGL 简介(中英文翻译)
译文：
OpenGL 简介
OpenGL是一个底层图形库规范。它为程序员提供了一个小的几何图元（点、线、多边形、图片和位图）库和一个支持2D/3D几何对象绘图命令库，通过所提供的图元和命令来控制对象的呈现（绘图）。
由于OpenGL的绘图命令仅限于画一些简单的几何图元（如点、线和多边形），所以OpenGL实用工具包（GLUT）应运而生，它能够帮助绘画出更复杂的三维对象（比如球体、圆环甚至茶壶）。如果你要构建需要利用到OpenGL全部特性的应用的话，GLUT 未必适合,但是对刚学习OpenGL的人来说GLUT就非常有用。
GLUT是为满足windows系统下OpenGL程序独立编程接口的需求而设计的，接口被设计的非常简单而又实用。从OpenGL中移除windows系统的操作是一个非常英明的决定，因为这意味着OpenGL图形系统能够被应用于更广泛的系统中(包括功能强大但昂贵的图形工作站以及需要大量图形运算的视频游戏、互动电视机机顶盒和个人电脑)。
GLUT简化了用OpenGL进行渲染的程序的实现。GLUT应用编程接口（API）只需要调用很少的接口就可以用OpenGL来渲染图形场景，并且GLUT接口所需的参数也相对较少。
渲染管线
大多数OpenGL实现都有着类似的操作顺序，这一系列的操作过程叫做OpenGL 渲染管线。尽管OpenGL并不严格要求需要按照渲染管线这一顺序来实现，但是这样做可以为预测OpenGL下一步将要做什么提供可靠的指引。几何数据（点、线、多边形）将会沿着一条依次通过求值器、顶点操作和装配阶段的路径进行传递，而像素数据（像素，图形，位图）将会沿着另一条路径传递，在最终像素写入帧缓冲区前，像素数据和几何数据都会经历相同的最后一步——栅格化处理。
Display Lists: 所有数据，无论是用来描述几何体还是像素的，都可以保存在
一个display list中来在当下或将来使用（用以替代display list的用法是在需要时立即处理数据——称为立即模式）当一个display list被触发时，保存的数据就像立即模式一样被发送至显示器。
Evaluators: 所有几何原语最终都是由顶点描述的，但evaluator提供了一种用控制点表示面的方法。这种方法是拟合多项式，可以通过控制点提供面法线、颜色、和空间纹理坐标。
基于顶点和图元的装配：对于顶点的数据，下一步就是将它们转换成图元。某些类型的顶点数据被转换为4x4的浮点型矩阵。空间坐标从三维世界中的一个位置被投影到您显示屏上的一个位置。在某些情形中，这一步之后会进行透视除法，利用它能够使远处的几何物体看起来比近处的物体小。然后，我们再对数据进行视口和景深的操作。至此，我们得到的结果是几何图元，这些图元与相关的颜色值和景深值，以及光栅化步骤的指标等一同进行转换。
像素操作：在几何数据通过OpenGL渲染管线的一条路径的同时，像素数据则通过了另外一条路径。系统内存中的一个数组中的像素首先被解压，从若干格式中的一种转换成拥有恰当数目的分量的那种。然后，我们对数据进行尺度放缩，偏移，再根据像素映射处理，随后这些结果被发送至光栅化步骤。
光栅化：光栅化是指将几何数据和像素数据都转换成片段的过程。各方形片段对应帧缓存中的一个像素。当顶点被连接起来形成直线，或者计算填充的多边形的内部像素时，直线的宽度，点的大小，着色模型，以及用以支持抗锯齿的覆盖计算等都被考虑在内。颜色值和深度值被赋予各方形片段。然后，处理后的片段被存入合适的缓存中，在那里，它最终被转化成一个像素，从而完成了它的最终使命。
库文件
OpenGL提供了一组强大但原始的渲染命令，而且所有的高层绘制都必须通过这些命令来完成。有若干库文件能够简化您的编程任务，包括：
?OpenGL Utility Library （GLU），它包含若干调用底层OpenGL命令的函数，这些函数能够进行诸如为某一特定观察方向和透视以及渲染表面设定矩阵的任务。
?OpenGL Utility Toolkit （GLUT），它是一个视窗-系统分离的工具箱，由Mark Kilgard编写，用于隐藏不同视窗的API所带来的复杂性。
包含文件
对于所有OpenGL应用程序，你都需要在所有文件中包含gl.h。几乎所有OpenGL 应用程序使用GLU，即上文提到的OpenGL实用库（OpenGL Utility Library），它也需要包含gl.h才能使用。所以几乎所有OpenGL源文件这样开头：
1 #include
2 #include
如果你用OpenGL 实用工具集（OpenGL Utility Toolkit，即GLUT）来管理窗体事务，你需要包含：
1 #include
记住glut.h保证会正确包含gl.h和glut.h，所以把三个文件全包含是多此一举。为使你的GLUT程序通用性更佳，包含glut.h而不要明确包含gl.h或glu.h。设置编译器
在Windows上使用MS Visual Studio C++
安装GLUT
1.如果你已经安装了MS Visual Studio C++ 5.0或以上版本，那么下列文件中
的大多数就已经在您的机器上了。下列的GLUT文件需要复制到指定的路径下。
2.要开始安装：
?右键单击各链接
?选择另存为...
?接受默认名称（只需点击保存即可）
?库文件（放置到Visual C++下的lib\子路径中）
?opengl32.lib
?glu32.lib
?glut32.lib
?包含文件（放置到Visual C++下的include\GL\子路径中）
?gl.h
?glu.h
?glut.h
?动态链接库文件（放置到\Windows\System路径中）
?opengl32.dll
?glu32.dll
?glut32.dll
编译OpenGL/GLUT程序
1.创建一个新项目：
?从菜单中点选文件 | 新建
?点选项目选项卡
?点选Win32控制台应用程序 Console Application
?输入您的项目名称
2.为链接器指定要用到的库文件：
?从菜单中点选项目 | 设置
?在对象/库模块中：输入"opengl32.lib glu32.lib glut32.lib"
3.向项目中添加或创建文件：
?从文件菜单中点选项目 | 向项目添加 | 文件
?添加需要的程序文件
4.构建并运行
Silicon Graphics Workstation
Makefile:
view source
print?
01 # insert the name of your source file here (omit the .c)
02 TARGET = progname
03
04 LIBS = -lglut -lGLU -lGL -lXmu -lXext -lXi -lX11 -lm
05
06 CC = /usr/gnu/bin/gcc
07
08 default: $(TARGET)
09
10 all: default
11
12 .c.o:
13 $(CC) -c $<
14
15 $(TARGET): $$@.o
16 $(CC) $@.o -Wall $(LIBS) -o $@
17
18 clean:
19 -rm -f *.o $(TARGET)
开始3D编程前需注意的十件事:
开始3D编程不是一件容易完成的任务。这里有很多新的东西可以发挥作用，从选择语言到选择合适的3d建模软件。当这10个事情完成时，无论你选择何种语言，使用何种建模软件，你都可以认为自己是这方面的半个专家了。
＃1：建立自己的图形初始化函数
现在有种类繁多的3d引擎和平台，所以这个任务一般交给它们来完成。我还记得以前的事情，你必须使用windows函数来初始化OpenGL，并管理窗口句柄和资源的加载。了解事情是如何进行内部管理的会让你更深刻理解你现在在干什么，这是非常有用的。我建议从NEHE的教程开始。在教程的第一章中包含了一个C语言编写的利用Windows API的图形初始化函数。如果这里有很多东西需要你控制，你可以试试
C++的相对的函数，或者使用托管语言，像C#、Java或者Python。在网络中有很多例子。
＃2：实现自己的相机
您可以从互联网上复制和粘贴摄像头的代码，使用它并没有大的问题，但它不是自己的相机，直到你从头开始，充分了解一些概念，如向量处理，矩阵变化，角度转换等等。你应该先从一个FPS（第一人称射击）的摄像头开始，它会给你需要的一切并让你为接下来的学习做好准备。如果你以后想构建自己的游戏，你不能使用它。我建议你阅读这篇文章，以找出最适合您的需求类型的相机。
＃3：了解初级的3D概念
当我开始，我就开始听到了很多新词，如抗锯齿，各向异性过滤，阻塞测试，Z-缓冲，alpha测试，着色器语言，凹凸贴图等。如果你是一个玩家，也许你已经在配置游戏的图形设置时看过它们了。请确保你花费一些时间来阅读相关内容，因为这将会给你一个3D编程的概述。
＃4：学习所有向量和矩阵的知识
这始终被低估。我强烈建议，为了正确地管理如相机，光线追踪，地形跟踪的东西，你应该知道关于这个的一切。当然，你也需要学会最基础的三角知识。现在我才明白，如果我愿意花几分钟研究这个问题，我的生活本应该很轻松。
＃5：编写你自己的3D模型加载器
我建议从使用OBJ文件或STL文件开始，因为他们用一个ASCII格式表示。之后你可以迁移到其他根伟复杂的格式上，比如3DS格式。有了这个，你不仅将了解如何保存3D模型，你还会理解如何绘制三角形，然后你就会明白图形引擎是如何绘制一切的。
＃6：成功实现自己的碰撞算法
一个事情是绘制世界，另外一个是管理其他中几何形状。在一个虚拟的3D世界中，这里没有物理定律，所以你必须创建它们。如果你想要一个对象不能穿越墙壁，那么你必须在墙壁中创建一个几何图形并计算所有东西。有几种方法来管理碰撞，我建议从在一个迷宫项目实现两体碰撞开始。试试这个链接，了解更多信息。
＃7：实现一个小的粒子引擎
当我发现3D游戏中火焰、烟雾、照明和一些其他令人惊艳的效果是由粒子组成，而那些粒子是由相机面前的贴图组成。你添加更多的粒子，效果看起来更加逼真，但是性能就有所损失了。我的第一个粒子引擎是为火箭的烟雾制作的，而且我这样做的
时候还没有不参看粒子引擎教程。后来我意识到了，我已经改造了车轮。通过实现这些东西，你会明白一些诸如粒子发射器、粒子行为等想法。
＃8：了解一个3D建模软件的基本知识
为了修改在你的应用中使用的3D模型，你应该知道基本的操作，比如平移，缩放，旋转，变形，导出为其他格式，并制作简单的模型。如果你不这样做，你在制作第一个游戏时遇到事事依赖别人的情况。我曾用过几个建模软件，我强烈推荐3D MAX 或Maya。
＃9 ：加载和播放动画
我做过的最困难的事情是加载并正确播放动画。我不得不对3D max的XAF文件进行大量的逆向。我不得不学习骨骼层次，矩阵插值等东西。在最后，看到自己的模型自行移动是一件让人相当高兴的事情。我建议从一个机器人动画开始，因为动物模型什么的还需要一种名为蒙皮的技术。
#10 编写2D自定义GUI控件
当我开始使用XNA时，由于XNA没有实现窗体控件，我不得不构建自己的图形用户接口。这也导致了两件事：
第一：我有了构建自定义的GUI控件的能力。
第二：我懂得了一些重要的概念，如事件控制和事件捕捉。
这不是容易的事，我实现的最难的一个控件是listbox，但是一旦做出来了，就可以在很多地方使用了。
结论
在这个过程中你将会遇到很多问题。你不得不花费很多时间来使你的代码可以正常工作，即使你很聪明。但是我可以告诉你的是，从一个程序猿的角度来说，没有什么快乐比的上你看着你的代码能顺利的工作。我仍然不能忘记当我第一次编出OBJ 模块加载器时的喜悦。当时，我想要加载个人脸图像，然后数个小时过去了，在凌晨3:50时，突然一个非常诡异的人脸出现在我的屏幕，真是吓死爹了，每当我想起这件事时，就哈哈大笑..
我确信当你设法完成这10件事后，你可以说你已经了解了3D编程的基础。我写篇文章是因为我花了很多时间来完成它（指走了弯路了），所以我希望每个开始接触3D编程的人，能有一个小小的指南。我的建议是开始做一个小小的游戏，并不断的完善它。我觉得这是一个很好的方式，因为如果只是单纯的去学习而看不到实际的效果的话，积极性不高。一段时间之后，你会觉得游戏对你来说不一样了，因为你会花
很多时间来想它们是怎么解决你曾经碰到的技术难点的。以上，我试图使这篇文章结构保持清晰和易懂，如果你喜欢，你可以访问我的博客来获取更多的这方面的内容。
——下附原文
原文：
Introduction to OpenGL
OpenGL is a low-level graphics library specification. It makes available to the programmer a small set of geomteric primitives - points, lines, polygons, images, and bitmaps. OpenGL provides a set of commands that allow the specification of geometric objects in two or three dimensions, using the provided primatives, together with commands that control how these objects are rendered (drawn).
Since OpenGL drawing commands are limited to those that generate simple geometric primitives (points, lines, and polygons), the OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) has been created to aid in the development of more complicated three-dimensional objects such as a sphere, a torus, and even a teapot. GLUT may not be satisfactory for full-featured OpenGL applications, but it is a useful starting point for learning OpenGL
GLUT is designed to fill the need for a window system independent programming interface for OpenGL programs. The interface is designed to be simple yet still meet the needs of useful OpenGL programs. Removing window system operations from OpenGL is a sound decision because it allows the OpenGL graphics system to be retargeted to various systems including powerful but expensive graphics workstations as well as
mass-production graphics systems like video games, set-top boxes for interactive television, and PCs.
GLUT simplifies the implementation of programs using OpenGL rendering. The GLUT application programming interface (API) requires very few routines to display a graphics scene rendered using OpenGL. The GLUT routines also take relatively few parameters.
Rendering Pipeline
Most implementations of OpenGL have a similar order of operations, a series of processing stages called the OpenGL rendering pipeline. Although this is not a strict rule
of how OpenGL is implemented, it provides a reliable guide for predicting what OpenGL will do. Geometric data (verices, line, and polygons) follow a path through the row of boxes that includes evaluators and per-vertex operations, while pixel data (pixels, images and bitmaps) are treated differently for part of the process. Both types of data undergo the same final step (raterization) before the final pixel data is written to the framebuffer.
Display Lists: All data, whether it describes geometry or pixels, can be saved in a display list for current or later use. (The alternative to retaining data in a display list is processing the data immediately-known as immediate mode.) When a display list is executed, the retained data is sent from the display list just as if it were sent by the application in immediate mode.
Evaluators: All geometric primitives are eventually described by vertices. Evaluators provide a method for deviving the vertices used to represent the surface from the control points. The method is a polynomial mapping, which can produce surface normal, colors, and spatial coordinate values from the control points.
Per-Vertex and Primitive Assembly: For vertex data, the next step converts the vertices into primitives. Some types of vertex data are transformed by 4x4 floating-point matrices. Spatial coordinates are projected from a position in the 3D world to a position on your screen. In some cases, this is followed by perspective division, which makes distant geometric objects appear smaller than closer objects. Then viewport and depth operations are applied. The results at this point are geometric primitives, which are transformed with related color and depth vlaues and guidelines for the rasterization step.
Pixel Operations: While geometric data takes one path through the OpenGL rendering papeline, pixel data takes a different route. Pixels from an array in system memory are first unpacked form one of a variety of formats into the proper number of components. Next the data is scaled, biased, processed by a pixel map, and sent to the rasterization step. Rasterization: Rasterization is the conversion of both geometric and pixel data into fragments. Each fragment square corresponds to a pixel in the framebuffer. Line width, point size, shading model, and coverage calculations to support antialiasing are taken ito consideration as vertices are connected into lines or the interior pixels are calculated for a
filled polygon. Color and depth values are assigned for each fragment square. The
processed fragment is then drawn into the appropriate buffer, where it has finally advanced to be a pixel and achieved its final resting place.
Libraries
OpenGL provides a powerful but primitive set of rendering command, and all higher-level drawing must be done in terms of these commands. There are several libraries that allow you to simplify your programming tasks, including the following:
?OpenGL Utility Library (GLU) contains several routines that use lower-level OpenGL commands to perform such tasks as setting up matracies for specific viewing
orientations and projections and rendering surfaces.
?OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) is a window-system-independent toolkit, written by Mark Kilgard, to hide the complexities of differing window APIs.
Include Files
For all OpenGL applications, you want to include the gl.h header file in every file. Almost all OpenGL applications use GLU, the aforementioned OpenGL Utility Library, which also requires inclusion of the glu.h header file. So almost every OpenGL source file begins with:
Setting Up Compilers
?Windows Using MS Visual C++
Installing GLUT
1.Most of the following files (ie. OpenGL and GLU) will already be present if you
have installed MS Visual C++ v5.0 or later. The following GLUT files will need to be copied into the specified directories.
2.To install:
?right-click each link
?choose Save Link As...
?accept the default name (just click Save)
?libraries (place in the lib\ subdirectory of Visual C++)
?opengl32.lib
?glu32.lib
?glut32.lib
?include files (place in the include\GL\ subdirectory of Visual C++)
?gl.h
?glu.h
?glut.h
?dynamically-linked libraries (place in the \Windows\System subdirectory ?opengl32.dll
?glu32.dll
?glut32.dll
Compiling OpenGL/GLUT Programs
1.Create a new project:
?choose File | New from the File Menu
?select the Projects tab
?choose Win32 Console Application
?fill in your Project name
2.Designate library files for the linker to use:
?choose Project | Settings from the File Menu
?under Oject/library modules: enter "opengl32.lib glu32.lib glut32.lib"
3.Add/Create files to the project:
?choose Project | Add to Project | Files from the File menu
?add the required program files
4.Build and Execute
Silicon Graphics Workstation
Makefile:
view source
print?
01 # insert the name of your source file here (omit the .c)
02 TARGET = progname
03
04 LIBS = -lglut -lGLU -lGL -lXmu -lXext -lXi -lX11 -lm
05
06 CC = /usr/gnu/bin/gcc
07
08 default: $(TARGET)
09
10 all: default
11
12 .c.o:
13 $(CC) -c $<
14
15 $(TARGET): $$@.o
16 $(CC) $@.o -Wall $(LIBS) -o $@
17
18 clean:
19 -rm -f *.o $(TARGET)
Ten Things to Achieve When Starting 3D Programming：
Starting 3D programming is not an easy task to accomplish. There are a lot of new things that come into play, and they vary from choosing a programming language to selecting the correct 3D modeling software. These 10 goals are the things that when they are done, no matter in what language and with what rendering engine, you can consider yourself a semi-expert on this matter.
#1: Build your own custom graphic initialization function
Today with the great variety of 3D engines and platforms, this task is always delegated to those. I still remember the times when you had to initialize OpenGL with all the windows functions, and how you had to manage windows handles and resource loading yourself. This is useful to understand how things are managed internally and will give you
chapter one. If this is a lot for you to handle, you should look at C++ equivalent functions or try to port them to managed languages like C#, Java or Python. There are plenty of examples on the internet.
#2: Implement your own camera
Youcan copy and paste a camera code from the internet, and use it without major problems, but it is not until you make your own camera from scratch that you will fully understand some concepts like vector handling, translation matrices, angle conversion, etc. You should start by coding a FPS (First Person Shooter) camera; it has everything it needs to get you ready. Later if you want to make your own game and you can’t use it, I recommend you to read this article to find out the type of camera that best suits your needs.
#3: Understand primary 3D concepts
When I started, I began to hear a lot of new words like anti-aliasing, anisotropic filtering, occlusion testing, z-buffer, alpha testing, shader language, bump mapping, etc. Maybe if you are a gamer, you have seen some of them while configuring the graphic settings of your game. Make sure you spent some time reading about this, because it will give an overview of what 3D programming is.
#4: Learn everything you can about vectors and matrices
This is always underestimated, I strongly recommend that in order to correctly manage things like cameras, terrain following, ray tracing; you should know everything about this. You should also learn minimum trigonometry basis. Now I understand how easy my life would have been if I would had spent only a few hours studying this matter. #5: Code yourself a 3D model loader
I recommend beginning with a .OBJ file or a .STL file because they have an ASCII format
representation. Later, you can move to other more complex formats like .3DS. With this, you not only will understand more how 3D models are saved, you will have to draw it in its raw manner: triangles, and then you will understand how everything is drawn in a graphics engine.
#6: Successfully make your own collision algorithm
It is one thing to draw a world and another thing to manage its geometry. In a virtual 3D world, there are no physics laws, so you have to create them. If you want an object not to go through a wall, then you have to create an internal geometric representation of the wall and make all the calculations yourself. There are several approaches to handle
#7: Implement a small particle engine
I was disappointed when I found out that fire, smoke, some lighting and other stunning effects that you see in 3D games are made by particles and that particles are in essence planes with textures facing the camera. The more particles you add, the more realistic the effect looks but the performance is more compromised. The first particle engine I made was for rocket smoke and I did it without looking at a particle engine tutorial. Later I realized I had reinvented the wheel but I was really into this. By carrying out this, you will understand concepts like particle emitters, particle behavior and bill boarding techniques, among others.
#8: Learn the basics in a 3D modeling software
In order to make changes to the 3D models you want to use in your application, you should at least know operations like translating, scaling, rotating, texturing, exporting to other formats and making simple models. If you don’t do that, you will suffer from depending on other people to do your first game. I’ve worked with a few modeling software and I strongly recommend 3D Max or Maya.
#9: Load and play an animation
Loading and correctly playing an animation was the most difficult thing in 3D that I ever did. I had to do reverse engineering to a 3D max .XAF file. I had to also learn stuff like bone hierarchy, matrix interpolation, among others. At the end, it was very gratifying to look at your own models moving by themselves. I recommend starting with animating a robot since models like animals and people require another technique called skinning.
#10: Code a 2D custom Graphic User Interface (GUI)
When I began programming in XNA; I was forced to build my own GUI because XNA does not have implemented any windows controls. This gave me two things, the first one was the ability to make my custom GUI controls and the other one was the understanding of concepts like event handling and event capturing. It is not easy, the most difficult control I have made is a listbox, but once it is made you can use it everywhere.
Conclusion
In this journey you will come across several issues. You will spend a lot of time trying your code to work no matter how smart you are. But I can tell you that from a programmer side of view there is nothing more comforting than seeing your own code working. I still remember the joy when I first coded an OBJ model loader. I was trying to load a face and after several hours on the task at 3:50am suddenly a very weird face appeared on the screen and scared the hell out of me, I laugh every time I remember that story.
I am sure when you manage to achieve these ten things, you can say you have the basic knowledge of 3D programming. I wrote this because I spent a lot of work and time to achieve them, and because I would like everyone to have a small guideline when starting in this world. My advice is to start making a small game and to try to adapt them on the go. I think this is the best way because trying to learn all this without the possibility to see it in action is not very motivating. You will see after a while that gaming won't be same for you, because you will spend some time trying to figure out how they solved some technical issues that you faced before. Thats all for now I tried to keep this article clear and understandable, if you liked it, you can visit my blog for more stuff like this.
中英文翻译知识分享
中英文翻译
Fuzzy Logic Based Autonomous Skid Steering Vehicle Navigation L.Doitsidis,K.P.Valavanis,N.C.Tsourveloudis Technical University of Crete Department of Production Engineering and Management Chania,Crete,Greece GR-73100 {Idoitsidis ,kimonv,nikost}@dpem.tuc.gr Abstract-A two-layer fuzzy logic controller has been designed for 2-D autonomous Navigation of a skid steering vehicle in an obstacle filled environment. The first layer of the Fuzzy controller provides a model for multiple sonar sensor input fusion and it is composed of four individual controllers, each calculating a collision possibility in front, back, left and right directions of movement. The second layer consists of the main controller that performs real-time collision avoidance while calculating the updated course to be applicability and implementation is demonstrated through experimental results and case studies performed o a real mobile robot. Keywords - Skid steering, mobile robots, fuzzy navigation. Ⅰ .INTRODUCTION The exist several proposed solutions to the problem of autonomous mobile robot navigation in 2-D uncertain environments that are based on fuzzy logic[1],[2],evolutionary algorithms [3],as well as methods combining fuzzy logic with genetic algorithms[4] and fuzzy logic with electrostatic potential fields[5]. The paper is the outgrowth of recently published results [9],[10],but it studies 2-D environments navigation and collision avoidance of a skid steering vehicle. Skid steering vehicles are compact, light, require few parts to assemble and exhibit agility from point turning to line driving using only the motions, components, and swept volume needed for straight line driving. Skid steering vehicle motion differs from explicit steering vehicle motion in the way the skid steering vehicle turns. The wheels rotation is limited around one axis and the back of steering wheel results in navigation determined by the speed change in either side of the skid steering vehicle. Same speed in either side results in a straight-line motion. Explicit steering vehicles turn differently since the wheels are moving around two axes. The geometric configuration of a skid steering vehicle in the X-Y plane is shown in Fig1，while a t is the heading angle, W is the robot width, θ the sense of rotation and S1, S2 are the speeds in the either side of the robot. The derived and implemented planner a two-layer fuzzy logic based controller that provides purely” reactive behavior” of the vehicle moving in a 2-D obstacle filled
室内设计空间-中英文对照1
室内设计空间-中英文对照 General: 一般 Plan - 平面图 Elevation -立面图 Section - 剖面图 Detail Drawing- 大样图 Ceiling Plan - 天花图 Plan: 平面 lighting layout Plan - 灯光设计图 Electrical Layout Plan - 电图 (一般指带有电制-socket 的图) Fire Service Layout Plan - 消防系统 MVAC Layout Plan - 空调系统 Detail Drawing: 详图 Floor Pattern Detail - 地板图 Stone Pattern Detail - 石图 Schedule: ( 附助图表 ) Lighting Schedule - 灯具表 1\ Florescent Light 2\ Spot Light (directional /non-directional) 3\ Light trough Socket Schedule - 电气表 Window and Door Schedule - 门窗表 Hardware Schedule - 五金器具表 Sanitary fixture Schedule - 洁具(卫生设备)表 家居篇: Living Room - 客厅 Dining Room - 饭厅 foyer - 玄关 Kitchen – Bath - 厕所、浴室 Study - 书房 Store - 贮物室 Master Bed Room - 主人房 Guest Bed Room - 客房 Suite - 套房 Balcony - 露台
常见医学术语(中英文对照)
welcome[]vt. & n. 欢迎；a. 受欢迎的 offer[]vt. & n. 提供；贡献 be about to[](不久)就要，即将 training[]n. 训练；培养 program[]n. 规划；(教学)大纲 general[]a. 一般的，普遍的 basic[]a. 基本的，基础的 course[]n. 课程；过程；疗程 biology[]n. 生物学devote[]vt. 贡献medical[]a. 医学的，医药的 anatomy[]n. 解剖学；解剖physiology[]n. 生理学biochemistry[]n. 生物化学 term[]n. 学期；期限；术语 internal[]a. 内服的；内部的 surgery[]n. 外科学，外科 and so on[]等等，诸如此类 clinical[]a. 临床的have to[]不得不，只好in addition[]另外follow-up[]a. & n. 接着的，后续的 advanced[]a. 高级的；先进的 besides[]ad. 此外；prep. 除…之外qualified[]a. 合格的campus[]n. 校园
storey[]n. 层(楼) collection[]n. 收集，收藏 central[]a. 中心的，中央的 laboratory[]n. 实验室，研究室 dormitory[]n. 宿舍altogether[]ad. 总共treat[]vt. 治疗；处理；对待 divide[]vt. 分；隔开speciality[]n. 专业；特征 department[]n. 科室；系；学部 traditional[]a. 传统的 affiliate[]vt. 使…加入；使附于 out-patient[]n. 门珍病人in-patient[]n. 住院病人 emergency[]n. 紧急情况 emergency room[]急诊室timely[]a. 及时的；合时的 available[]a. 可取得的；可用的 round the clock[]全天二十四小时 consult[]vt. 请教；看病；查阅 consulting room[]诊室complaint[]n. 疾病；主诉；抱怨 ward[]n. 病房 surgical[]a. 外科的pediatric[]a. 儿科的intensive[]a. 加强的；集中的 intensive care unit[]
医学基本中英文对照
1、颅脑 大脑 cerebrum 大脑纵裂 longitudinal cerebral fissure 大脑皮质 cerebral 大脑镰 falx cerebri 大脑导水管，中脑水管 cerebral aqueduct 中脑 midbrain, mesencephalon 小脑 cerebellum 小脑幕 tentorium cerebelli 丘脑，视丘 thalmus 延髓 medulla oblongata 侧脑室 lateral ventricle 第三脑室 third ventricle 第四脑室 fourth ventricle 第五脑室 fifth ventricle 脑桥，桥脑 pons 脑干 brain stem 间脑 diencephalon 中间块 intermidiate mass 尾状核 caudate nucleus 脉络丛 choroid plexus 胼胝体 corpus callosum 脑岛，岛叶 insula 大脑脚 cerebral peduncles 大脑外侧沟（窝、裂） lateral sulcus , sylvius fissure 穹窿 fornix 透明隔 septum pellucidum 透明隔腔 cavity of septum pellucidum 额叶 frontal lobe 顶叶 parietal lobe 枕叶 occipital lobe 颞叶 temporale lobe 缘叶 limbic lobe 大脑动脉环 Willi's artery circle 大脑前动脉 anterior cerebral artery 大脑中动脉 middle cerebral artery 大脑后动脉 posterior cerebral artery 基底动脉 basilar artery
中英文翻译英文原文
BPMN 2.0 Introduction to the Standard for Business Process Modeling By Thomas Allweyer 2.1 A First BPMN Model As a starting point, a simple BPMN process model is considered. The model of posting a job in figure 1 can be directly understood by most people who previously have been concerned with any kind of process modeling. The way of modeling is similar to well known flow charts and activity diagrams. Figure 1: A simple BPMN model A business department and the human resources department are involved in the process “Post a Job”. The process starts when an employee is required. The business department reports this job opening. Then the human resources department writes a job posting. The business department reviews this job posting. At this point, there are two possibilities: Either the job posting is okay, or it is not okay. If it is not okay, it is reworked by the human resources department. This is once more followed by the business department reviewing the job posting. Again, the result can be okay or not okay. Thus, it can happen that the job posting needs to be reviewed multiple times. If it is okay, it is published by the human resources department, and the end of the process is reached. In reality, the process for creating and publishing a job posting can be much more complex and extensive. The presented example is –like all examples in this book –a simplification in order to have small and easily understandable models which can be used for explaining the different BPMN elements. 2.2 BPMN Constructs Used Below each element from the model in figure 1 is explained more closely. The entire process is contained in a pool. This is a general kind of container for a complete process. In the example above, the pool is labeled with the name of the contained process. Every process is situated within a pool. If the pool is not important for understanding the process, it is not required to draw it in the diagram. In a process diagram which does not show a pool, the entire process is contained in an invisible, implicit pool. Pools are especially interesting when several pools are used in order to model a collaboration, i.e. the interplay of several partners’processes. Each partner’s process is then shown in a separate pool. This will be described in chapter 5. The pool from figure 1 is partitioned into two lanes. A lane can be used for various purposes,
室内设计中英文对照
常用室内设计词汇-中英文对照 室内设计-interior design 室内设计师- interior designer 建筑-architecture 建筑师-architect 景观-landscape 家具-furniture 灯光-lighting 照明-illumination 家居设计-residential design 商业设计-commercial design 软装-FF&E（furniture fixture and equipment) 人体工程学-ergonomics 空间-space 精品酒店-boutique hotel 草图-draft or sketch 规格-specification 汇报或讲解-presentation 渲染或着色-rendering 透视-perspective 规范-code 对称-symmetry 不对称-asymmetry 轴线-axis 空间篇 住宅类 客厅，起居室—living room 餐厅-dinning room 玄关-foyer 卧室-bedroom 主卧-master bedroom 次卧-second bedroom 客卧-guest bedroom 厨房-Kitchen 厨岛kitchen island 书房-study room 衣帽间-cloakroom 卫生间-bathroom , toilet , bath 储藏室-storage 楼梯-stair 阳台-balcony 花园-garden 露台-patio 商业类 1办公类 接待处- reception 候客区-waiting Area or lounge 会议室（小型的）-meeting room or seminar 会议室（大型的）-conference room 办公室- office 经理办公室manager office 开放式的工作区-work area 多功能室-multi-function room 2酒店类 入口-entrance 出口-exit 大堂-lobby 前厅-vestibule 过道-corridor 休闲区,等候区-lounge 宴会厅-ballroom 客房-guestroom 套间-suite 行政套房-executive suite 总统套房-presidential suite 健身中心—fitness center or gym 瑜伽-yoga 泳池-swimming pool Spa 咖啡厅-cafe 酒吧-bar 餐厅-restaurant 备餐-pantry 电梯-elevation or lift 卫生间-restroom 男-men's 女women's 影院-cinema 商务中心-business center 行李间-luggage store 盥洗室-lavatory 3其他类 天花-ceiling 长廊-pavilion 零售店-retail store 大厅(堂）-hall 展览-gallery
常用医学英文缩写对照表
常用医学英文缩写对照表 AB ACEI ACT AG AMI ANA ARDS ASO ATP AVNRT AVRT BB BEE BT BuN C3 CBC CCU CHE CK CPAP CPR CT CVP DBP DCT DIC DM EF ENT FDP FUO GNS Hb HCO3- HCT HIV Holter IABP IHSS 实际碳酸氢盐 血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂 激活凝血时间 离子间隙 急性心梗 抗核抗体 急性呼吸窘迫综合征 抗链球菌溶血素“0” 三磷酸腺苷 房室结折返性心动过速 房室折返性心动过速 缓冲碱 基础能量消耗 出血时间 尿素氮 补体C3 血常规 心血管监护室 胆碱酯酶 肌酸磷酸激酶 持续正压通气 心肺复苏 凝血时间 中心静脉压 舒张压 双氢克尿噻 弥散性血管内凝血 舒张期杂音 射血分数 耳鼻喉科(五官科) 纤维蛋白原降解产物 不明原因发热 葡萄糖生理氯化钠溶液 血红蛋白 碳酸氢根 红细胞比容 人类免疫缺陷病毒 24h动态心电图 主动脉内气囊反搏术 特发性肥厚型主动脉瓣下 NTG OB P(A-a)O2 P2 PaCO2 PAMPA PaO2 PCAP PCWP PEEP pH PPD Prn PT qh qid qn qod RF RI RR S3 S4 SaO2 SB TPN SBE SBP SGOT SGPT SK SM T3 T4 TAT TIL tid t-PA TPN TSH 硝酸甘油 隐油 肺泡气-动脉血氧分压差 肺动脉第二心音 动脉二氧化碳分压 氨甲苯酸 动脉氧分压 肺小动脉压 肺毛细血管压 呼气末正压 酸碱度 结核菌素纯蛋白衍生物 必要时 凝血酶原时间 每小时1次 每天4次 每晚1次 隔日1次 类风湿因子 胰岛素 呼吸频率 第3心音 第4心音 血氧饱和度 标准碳酸氢盐 全胃肠外营养 亚急性细菌性心内膜炎 收缩压 血清谷草转氨酶 血清谷丙转氨酶 链激酶 收缩期杂音 三碘甲状原氨酸 甲状腺素 抗蛇毒血清 短暂脑缺血发作 每天3次 组织型纤溶酶原激活物 全肠道外营养 促甲状腺激素
中英文翻译(修改)
建筑结构在冲击负载作用下连续倒塌分析方法 摘要：建筑物在冲击负载作用下的连续倒塌已经引起了全世界的极大关注。对于一个经济的，安全的，能够抵抗冲击负载作用下连续倒塌的建筑结构设计，连续倒塌分析是必不可少的。因为连续倒塌的灾难性特点，和为了抵抗它而潜在的建造和改造建筑物的高额费用，所以连续倒塌分析方法是绝对必要且可信的。对于工程师们而言，他们估算连续倒塌的方法不仅仅要求精确和简要，而且容易上手，立竿见影。因而，最近许多研究者都在发展可靠有效和直接的连续倒塌分析方法上花费了很多的精力。在最近的干物上，当前在文献资料中找得到的关于连续倒塌的分析方法被重新审阅。人们广泛讨论它们的适宜性、适用性和可靠性。我们也提出了最近刚刚完成的关于钢筋混凝土框架在爆破荷载下的连续倒塌新分析方法。 关键词：连续倒塌分析；建筑结构；爆炸荷载；冲击荷载 连续倒塌被定义为“由于一个基本的局部构件失效在构件之间扩散最终造成整个结构或者是不成比例的一大部分倒塌”。其含义为一个或者一组关键承重构件的失效造成周围构件的失效和部分或者是整个结构的倒塌。建筑结构的连续倒塌可能由一系列的意外和人为的因素造成，比如：错误的建造顺序，偶然过载造成的局部失效，爆炸和地震造成的关键组件的损坏。这篇论文仅仅研究了特殊荷载（如：爆炸和冲击），造成的建筑结构连续倒塌的分析。 随着最近Alfred P．Murrah联邦大楼和世界贸易中心（WTC）的倒塌，许多的研究更多的关注如何建造抵抗由于爆炸和冲击荷载造成连续倒塌的建筑。对于一个经济的，安全的，能够抵抗冲击负载作用下连续倒塌的建筑结构设计，连续倒塌分析是必不可少的。因为连续倒塌的灾难性特点，和为了抵抗它而潜在的建造和改造建筑物的高额费用，所以连续倒塌分析方法是绝对必要且可信的。对于工程师们而言，他们估算连续倒塌的方法不仅仅要求精确和简要，而且容易上手，立竿见影。因而，最近许多研究者都在发展可靠有效和直接的连续倒塌分析方法上花费了很多的精力。
室内设计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 自然 简约—对室内设计现象分析
室内设计外文翻译外文文献英文文献自然简约—对 室内设计现象分析 附件2:外文原文 Natural simplicity - on interior design Analysis Abstract: The natural, simple interior design show is a way of life, it allows us closer to nature, more emphasis on functionality, more concerned about life itself. create a poetic space. Keywords: minimalism; space; grade; interior design; feeling Ancient times, Chinese wooden framework architecture of ancient India, the Orient, Europe, building caves in ancient Greece, ancient Rome and so on decorative stone building closely integrated with the components, with the main building, however. dissolved into Europe in the early seventeenth century Baroque times and the mid-eighteenth century the Rococo era, began with the interior decoration of the main building separated from the main building external and internal fitting-out period in the use of the mismatch, thus leading to the main building and interior decoration of the separation, in the construction of the French court architecture and aristocratic mansion, the new occupation "decorative artisan" was born, the building's internal frequency continuous modification, fixed the main building, the replacement building, "clothing" the time has come. Baroque-style architecture of
生物及医学专业名词表(中英文对照)
生物及医学专业名词表（中英文对照） 应用生物学Applied Biology医学技术Medical Technology 细胞生物学Cell Biology医学Medicine 生物学Biology护理麻醉学Nurse Anesthesia 进化生物学Evolutionary Biology口腔外科学Oral Surgery 海洋生物学Marine Biology口腔/牙科科学Oral/Dental Sciences 微生物学Microbiology骨科医学Osteopathic Medicine 分子生物学Molecular Biology耳科学Otology 医学微生物学Medical Microbiology理疗学Physical Therapy 口腔生物学Oral Biology足病医学Podiatric Medicine 寄生物学Parasutology眼科学Ophthalmology 植物生物学Plant Physiology预防医学Preventive Medicine 心理生物学Psychobiology放射学Radiology 放射生物学Radiation Biology康复咨询学Rehabilitation Counseling 理论生物学Theoretical Biology康复护理学Rehabilitation Nursing 野生生物学Wildlife Biology外科护理学Surgical Nursing 环境生物学Environmental Biology治疗学Therapeutics 运动生物学Exercise Physiology畸形学Teratology 有机体生物学Organismal Biology兽医学Veterinary Sciences 生物统计学Biometrics牙科卫生学Dental Sciences 生物物理学Biophysics牙科科学Dentistry 生物心理学Biopsychology皮肤学Dermatology 生物统计学Biostatistics内分泌学Endocrinology 生物工艺学Biotechnology遗传学Genetics 生物化学Biological Chemistry解剖学Anatomy 生物工程学Biological Engineering麻醉学Anesthesia 生物数学Biomathematics临床科学Clinical Science 生物医学科学Biomedical Science临床心理学Clinical Psychology Celluar and Molecular Biology精神病护理学Psychiatric Nursing 细胞生物学和分子生 物学 1 / 1
姓名中英文翻译大全
姓名中英文翻译大全 A: 艾--Ai 安--Ann/An 敖--Ao B: 巴--Pa 白--Pai 包/鲍--Paul/Pao 班--Pan 贝--Pei 毕--Pih 卞--Bein 卜/薄--Po/Pu 步--Poo 百里--Pai-li C: 蔡/柴--Tsia/Choi/Tsai 曹/晁/巢--Chao/Chiao/Tsao 岑--Cheng 崔--Tsui 查--Cha
常--Chiong 车--Che 陈--Chen/Chan/Tan 成/程--Cheng 池--Chi 褚/楚--Chu 淳于--Chwen-yu D: 戴/代--Day/Tai 邓--Teng/Tang/Tung 狄--Ti 刁--Tiao 丁--Ting/T 董/东--Tung/Tong 窦--Tou 杜--To/Du/Too 段--Tuan 端木--Duan-mu 东郭--Tung-kuo 东方--Tung-fang E: F:
范/樊--Fan/Van 房/方--Fang 费--Fei 冯/凤/封--Fung/Fong 符/傅--Fu/Foo G: 盖--Kai 甘--Kan 高/郜--Gao/Kao 葛--Keh 耿--Keng 弓/宫/龚/恭--Kung 勾--Kou 古/谷/顾--Ku/Koo 桂--Kwei 管/关--Kuan/Kwan 郭/国--Kwok/Kuo 公孙--Kung-sun 公羊--Kung-yang 公冶--Kung-yeh 谷梁--Ku-liang H:
韩--Hon/Han 杭--Hang 郝--Hoa/Howe 何/贺--Ho 桓--Won 侯--Hou 洪--Hung 胡/扈--Hu/Hoo 花/华--Hua 宦--Huan 黄--Wong/Hwang 霍--Huo 皇甫--Hwang-fu 呼延--Hu-yen I: J: 纪/翼/季/吉/嵇/汲/籍/姬--Chi 居--Chu 贾--Chia 翦/简--Jen/Jane/Chieh 蒋/姜/江/--Chiang/Kwong
室内设计中英文翻译
毕业设计英文资料翻译 Translation of the English Documents for Graduation Design Interior Design Susan Yelavich Interior design embraces not only the decoration and furnishing of space, but also considerations of space planning, lighting, and programmatic issues pertaining to user behaviors, ranging from specific issues of accessibility to the nature of the activities to be conducted in the space. The hallmark of interior design today is a new elasticity in typologies, seen most dramatically in the domestication of commercial and public spaces. Interior design encompasses both the programmatic planning and physical treatment of interior space: the projection of its use and the nature of its furnishings and surfaces, that is, walls, floors, and ceilings. Interior design is distinguished from interior decoration in the scope of its purview. Decorators are primarily concerned with the selection of furnishings, while
常见医学术语(中英文对照)
welcome[]vt、& n、欢迎；a、受欢迎得offer[]vt、& n、提供；贡献 be about to[](不久)就要，即将 training[]n、训练；培养 program[]n、规划；(教学)大纲 general[]a、一般得，普遍得 basic[]a、基本得，基础得 course[]n、课程；过程；疗程 biology[]n、生物学 devote[]vt、贡献 medical[]a、医学得，医药得 anatomy[]n、解剖学；解剖 physiology[]n、生理学 biochemistry[]n、生物化学 term[]n、学期；期限；术语 internal[]a、内服得；内部得 surgery[]n、外科学，外科 and so on[]等等，诸如此类 clinical[]a、临床得 have to[]不得不，只好 in addition[]另外 follow-up[]a、& n、接着得，后续得advanced[]a、高级得；先进得 besides[]ad、此外；prep、除…之外qualified[]a、合格得 campus[]n、校园 storey[]n、层(楼) collection[]n、收集，收藏 central[]a、中心得，中央得 laboratory[]n、实验室，研究室dormitory[]n、宿舍 altogether[]ad、总共 treat[]vt、治疗；处理；对待 divide[]vt、分；隔开 speciality[]n、专业；特征 department[]n、科室；系；学部traditional[]a、传统得 affiliate[]vt、使…加入；使附于 out-patient[]n、门珍病人 in-patient[]n、住院病人 emergency[]n、紧急情况 emergency room[]急诊室 timely[]a、及时得；合时得 available[]a、可取得得；可用得round the clock[]全天二十四小时consult[]vt、请教；瞧病；查阅consulting room[]诊室 complaint[]n、疾病；主诉；抱怨ward[]n、病房 surgical[]a、外科得 pediatric[]a、儿科得 intensive[]a、加强得；集中得intensive care unit[]监护抢救小组(室) separate[]a、单独得；分离得separate、、、from、、、[]把…分开section[]n、(组织)部分 x-ray[]n、x射线 pharmacy[]n、药房；药学 sterilize[]vt、消毒；使…断种instrument[]n、器械；仪器 store[]vt、& n、储藏；店铺 in store for[]贮藏以备… bank[]n、库；银行；河岸 blood[]血库 transfusion[]n、输血；注入 staff[]n、工作人员(全体) medical staff[]医务人员 make up[]v、组成；决定；配制 be made up of[]由…组成 operator[]n、话务员；技术员operate[]vi、& vt、运转；开动engage[]vt、使从事于，使忙于put、、、through to、、、[]接通(电话)…go on[]进行；继续 preparation[]n、准备；制备；制剂perform[]vt、执行；施行；演出acute[]a、急性得；尖锐得appendicitis[]n、阑尾炎immediately[]ad、即刻，立即 rib[]n、肋骨 fracture[]vt、使折断；n、骨折arrange[]vt、安排；布置 arrange for[]为…作准备(安排) arrangement[]n、安排；布置；筹备right away[]立刻 by the way[]顺便 type[]n、类型；典型；榜样anesthesia[]n、麻醉
医学常用中英文名称翻译标准
常用缩写 AAA, abdominal aortic aneurysm 腹主动脉瘤 ABFB, aortobifemoral bypass 主双股动脉旁路术 ABI, ankle-brachial index 踝肱指数 ACA, anterior cerebral artery 大脑前动脉 ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme 血管紧张素转化酶 ACT, activated clotting time 活化凝血时间 ADA, American Diabetes Association 美国糖尿病协会 ADP, adenosine diphosphate 二磷酸腺苷 AEF, aortoenteric fistula 主动脉肠道瘘 AF, atrial fibrillation 房颤 AFB, aortofemoral bypass 主股旁路术 AGE, advanced glycosylation end product 高级糖基化终末产物 AHA, American Heart Association 美国心脏病协会 AHRQ, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality 健康保健研究及质量控制委员会AI, aortoiliac 主髂 AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 获得性免疫缺陷综合征 AKA, above-knee amputation 膝上截肢术 AMP, adenosine monophosphate 单磷酸腺苷 APC, activated protein C 活化蛋白C APG, air plethysmography 空气体积描记术 aPTT, activated partial thromboplastin time 活化部分凝血酶原时间 ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker 血管紧张素受体阻滞剂 ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome 急性呼吸窘迫综合征 ARF, acute renal failure 急性肾衰 ASA, acetylsalicylic acid 阿司匹林 ATN, acute tubular necrosis 急性肾小管坏死 ATP, adenosine triphosphate 三磷酸腺苷 AVE, arteriovenous fistula 动静脉瘘 AVG, arteriovenous graft 动静脉移植物
中英文翻译模板
Process Parameters Selection for Friction Surfacing Applications Using Intelligent Decision Support Abstract Friction surfacing is an advanced manufacturing process, which has been successfully developed and commercialised over the past decade. The process is used for corrosion and wear resistant coatings and for reclamation of worn engineering components. At present the selection of process parameters for new coating materials or substrate geometries is by experiment requiring lengthy development work. The major requirement is for flexibility to enable rapid changes of process parameters in order to develop new applications, with variations of materials and geometries in a cost effective and reliable manner. Further improvement requires development of appropriate mathematical models of the process, which will facilitate the introduction of optimisation techniques for efficient experimental work as well as the introduction of real-time feedback adaptive control. This paper considers the use of combined artificial intelligence and modeling techniques. It includes a new frame of a neurofuzzy-model based decision support system—FricExpert, which is aimed at speeding up the parameter selection process and to assist in obtaining values for cost effective development. Derived models can then be readily used for optimisation techniques, discussed in our earlier work. Author Keywords: Surfaces and interfaces; Metals and alloys; Materials engineering