生物学专业英语期末考试知识点总结

生物学专业英语期末考试知识点总结

一、化学元素符号（31个）

HHydrogen ['ha?dr?d?(?)n] 氢 B Boron ['b??r?n]硼

Be Beryllium [b?'r?l??m] 铍 C Carbon ['kɑ?b(?)n]碳N Nitrogen ['na?tr?d?(?)n] 氮OOxygen ['?ks?d?(?)n] 氧

F Fluorine ['fl??ri?n]氟Na Sodium ['s??d??m] 钠

Mg Magnesium[m?g'ni?z??m] 镁Al Aluminum [??lu?m?n?m] 铝

Si Silicon ['s?l?k(?)n] 硅P Phosphorus['f?sf(?)r?s] 磷

S Sulphur['s?lf?] 硫Cl Chlorine['kl??ri?n]氯

K Potassium [p?'t?s??m]钾Ca Calcium ['k?ls??m]钙

Cr Chromium['kr??m??m]铬Mn Manganese['m??g?ni?z]锰

Fe Iron ['a??n]铁Co Cobalt['k??b??lt]钴

Ni Nickel['n?k(?)l] 镍Cu Copper['k?p?] 铜

Zn Zinc[z??k]锌As Arsenic ['ɑ?s(?)n?k]砷

Se Selenium[s?'li?n??m]硒Mo Molybdenum[m?'l?bd?n?m]钼

Ag Silver['s?lv?]银Cd Cadmium ['k?dm??m]镉

Au Gold[g??ld] 金Hg Mercury ['m??kj?r?] 汞

Pb Lead [li?d] 铅

二、数学符号

a2a square or a squared

b3 b cube or b cubed[kju?b]立方

c4 c (raised) to the fourth (power) f-1 f to the minus one 0.4 zero (or nought) point four[n??t]零

0.01point (or decimal) nought one['des?m(?)l]小数10.34ten point three four

μ micron ['ma?kr?n] 微米mm millimeter ['mili,mi:t?]毫米

mm2 square millimeter

mm3cubic millime ter ['kju?b?k]立方的cm centimeter [?sent?mi?t?(r)] 厘米cm2square centimeter

cm3cubic centimeter dm decimeter ['des?,mi?t?]分米dm2square decimeter

dm3 cubic decimeter

m meter

m2 square meter

m3cubic meter

km kilometer

km2 square kilometer

mL milliliter['mili,li:t?]毫升L liter ['li:t?] 升a acre ['e?k?] 英亩ha hectare ['hekte?]公顷

g gramme [ɡr?m] 克mg milligramme ['miligr?m]毫克kg kilogramme ['kil?uɡr?m]千克t tonne [t?n]吨

三、期刊杂志全称与简写

英文全称英文缩写中文全称Annual Review of Biochemistry Annu Rev Biochem 生物化学年刊Cell Cell 细胞Annual Review of Cell Biology Annu Rev Cell Biol 细胞生物学年刊The Journal of the Federation of American

Society for Experimental Biology

FASEB Journal （FASEB J ）美国实验生物学联合会刊European Molecular Biology Organization EMBO Journal （EMBO J）欧洲分子生物学杂志Trends in Biochemical Sciences Trends Biochem Sci 生物化学科学进展

Molecular and Cellular Biology MolCell Biol 分子与细胞生物学杂志Journal of Biological Chemistry J Biol Chem 生物化学期刊Plant Cell Plant Cell 植物细胞Molecular Pharmacology Mol Pharmacol 分子药理学DNA Cell Biology DNA Cell Biol DNA细胞生物学Journal of Molecular Biology J Mol Biol 分子生物学期刊Biochemistry Biochemistry 生物化学

Cell Growth and Differentiation CellGrowthDiffer 细胞生长与分化Methods in Enzymology Method Enzymol 酶学方法

Molecular Microbiology Mol Microbiol 分子微生物学

Journal of Neurochemistry J Neurochem 神经化学杂志Progress in Biophysics & Molecular

Biology

ProgBiophysMolBiol 生物物理和分子生物学进展Advances in Microbial Physiology Adv Microb Physiol 微生物生理学进展Molecular Biology and Evolution MolBioEvol 分子生物学与进化Journal of Cellular Biochemistry J Cell Biochem 细胞生物化学杂志Molecular Biology and Medicine Mol BiolMed 分子生物学与药学

Federation of European Biochemistry

Society FEBS Letters ( FEBS Lett)

欧洲生物化学学会联合会杂

志

Plant Molecular Biology Plant Mol Biol 植物分子生物学Journal of Molecular Evolution J Mol Evol 分子进化杂志Analytical Biochemistry Anal Biochem 分析生物化学

Molecular Immunology MolImmunol 分子免疫学

Neurochemical Research NeurochemRes 神经化学研究Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry MolCellBiochem 分子与细胞生物化学Molecular Biology Report Mol Biol Rep 分子生物学报告

Proceedings of National Academy of

sciences USA PROC NATL ACAD

SCI USA

美国国家科学院院刊

四、作文

1. Topic or title or head.

2. Authors and their institutes.

3. Abstract

4. Introduction

5. Materials and Methods

6. Results

7. Discussion

8. References or literatures cited.

How to write a report or paper

A paper

consists of 8

parts

English description英文叙述Chinese narrative中文叙述

Part1.

Topic or title

or head.

(主题/标题/头)

Concise and informative 简洁而信息量丰富Part2.

Authors and their institutes. （作者及其所在研究机构）

The name(s) of the auther(s)

The affiliation(s) and address(es) of the auther(s)

The e-mail address,telephone and fax numbers of the corresponding auther

作者姓名

作者的隶属机构和地址

通讯作者的电子邮件地址，电话号码以及传真号。

Part3. Abstract （摘要）

The abstract is actually the first section of a report or paper, coming after the title and

before the introduction. The abstract provides the reader with a brief preview of your study

based on information from the other sections of the report or paper.

Order of typical elements included in an abstract:

B=some background information(present tense)

P=the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its scope (past/present/perfect tense)

M=some information about the methodology[meθ?'d?l?d??] used in the study(past tense)

R=the most important results of the study (past tense)

C=a statement of conclusion or recommendation(present tense/tentative verbs/modal

auxiliaries)

摘要实际上是报告或论文的第一部分,在标题之后，介

绍之前。摘要为读者提供了一个简短的基于你的研究

的报告或论文的其他部分的信息的预览。

典型的摘要包括以下几个方面：

B：背景信息（一般现在时）

P：主要工作或目的（一般过去时/一般现在时/现在完

成时）

M：研究方法（一般过去时）

R：本研究最重要的结果（一般过去时）

C：总结

Part 4. Introduction （引言）

The introduction serves as an orientation [,??r??n'te??(?)n] for readers of the report or

paper, giving them the perspective they need to understand the detailed information

coming in later sections.The introduction can be divided into five parts, or stages. In Stage

Ⅰ, the author establishes a context, or frame of references, to help readers understand

how the research fits into a wider field of study.

Stage 1. Establish a setting for your research topic.

Stage 2. Review the findings of other researchers who have already published in your

area of interest. For this reason, Stage 2 is called the review of literature.

Stage 3. Indicates an area that is not treated in the previous literature, but that is

important from the point of view of your own work.

引言作为报告或论文的读者定位,给他们的观点，这个

观点的详细信息需要阅读后面的的部分。引言可分为

五个部分或阶段。在阶段Ⅰ中,作者建立了一个上下文

或参考框架,帮助读者了解一个更广泛的研究领域。

阶段1：建立一个你研究课题的背景

阶段2：综述您感兴趣的领域已经发表的其他研究人员

的发现。出于本原因,第二阶段被称为文献综述。

阶段3：指出一个之前文献没有研究的领域,但你工作

的视角对这个领域十分重要。

阶段4：正式宣布你的研究的目的。

Stage 4. Formally announces the purpose of your research.

Stage 5. Indicates possible benefits or applications of your work.

阶段5：指出你工作可能的好处或应用

Part 5.

Method

and

Materials （材料与方法）

The elements included in the method section in the order in which they are presented

are not fixed. Information elements included in method: Overview of the experiment

(design), population/Sample Location, Restriction/limiting conditions ,Sampling

technique, Procedures, Variables , Statistical treatment

Materials may fall into any of the following categories:Laboratory equipment, Field

equipment, Human or animal subjects, Natural substances, Fabricated ['f?brikeit]制造的

materials, Surveys, questionnaires and tests, Computer models, Mathematical models

方法部分需要给出一下几个方面的顺序，但是这个顺

序不是固定的，方法部分包括：实验概述；种群或样

本位置；限制条件;抽样技术;步骤；变量；统计处理。

材料可分为下列类别：实验室设备；场地设备；人或

动物材料；天然物质；预制材料；调查；问卷；检测；

计算机模型；数学模型。

Part 6. Results （结果）

The result section of the report presents the findings of the study in both figures and

in written text. Figures (graphs, tables, and diagrams) present the complete findings in

numerical terms, while the accompanying text helps the reader to focus on the most

important aspects of the results and to interpret them. Here, we concentrate on text, which

usually consists of three information elements.

Element 1: a statement that locates the figure(s) where the results can be found;

Element 2: statements that present the most important findings;

Element 3: statements that comment on the results

报告的结果部分要呈现出本研究的发现；包括数据和

书面文字。数据(包括绘制的图、表和拍摄的图)在数值

方面展示出完整的结果,而相应的文本能帮助读者关注

的最重要的结果并给予解释。在这里,我们专注于文字,

通常包含三个信息。

信息1：指出图中可以表明结果的位置

信息2：指出目前最重要的结果

信息3：结果的评论

Part 7. Discussion （讨论）

This is the last major section of the report or paper, followed by the list of references.

In the discussion, you step back and take a broad look at your findings and your study as

a whole. As in the introduction, researchers use the discussion section to examine their

work in the large context of their field.

讨论——报告或论文最后的主要部分,之后是引文列

表。在讨论中,你退一步,用宽阔视野审视你作为一个整

体的研究和结果。正如在引言中,研究人员在大背景下

用讨论的方法检验自己的工作。

Part 8.

References or

literatures

cited

（参考文献或

文献引用）

The order of Surname and Given name. 姓和名的顺序

五、Glossary 专业术语

Actin ['?kt?n] 肌动蛋白Centriole['sentr???l]

中心粒

Chemotaxis [,ki?m??'t?ks?s]

趋化性

Chloroplast['kl??r??plɑ?st]

叶绿体Chromosome ['kr??m?s??m]

染色体

Cytoplasm['sa?t?(?)pl?z(?)m]

细胞质

Cytoskeleton[,sait?u'skel?t?n]

细胞骨架Mitochondrion[,ma?t??'k?ndr??n]

线粒体

Nuclearenvelop [?n'vel?p]

核膜

nucleus['nju?kl??s] 细胞核Nucleoli [ nju:'kli:?lai] 核仁Plastid ['pl?st?d] 质体Chromatin ['kr??m?t?n] 染色质cell cycle V 细胞周期cell wall 细胞壁

Cell membrane ['membre?n]

细胞膜Vacuole ['v?kj???l]

液泡

Interphase ['?nt?fe?z]

分裂间期

Prophase ['pr??fe?z]

分裂前期Metaphase ['met?fe?z]

分裂中期

Anaphase ['?n?fe?z]

分裂后期

Telophase ['ti?l?(?)fe?z]

分裂末期Ribosome ['ra?b?(?)s??m]

核糖体

Centromere ['sentr?(?)m??]

着丝粒

Mitosis [ma?'t??s?s] 有丝分裂Meiosis [ma?'??s?s]

减数分裂

cytokinesis [,sa?t?(?)ka?'ni?s?s]

胞质分裂

haploid['h?pl??d] 单倍体Diploid['d?pl??d] 双倍体Nucleosome ['nju:kli?s?um] 核小体Spindle ['sp?nd(?)l] 纺锤体Histone ['h?st??n] 组蛋白Allele ['?li?l]等位基因dominant ['d?m?n?nt] 显性Recessive [r?'ses?v] 隐性Gene 基因Genotype ['d?en?ta?p] 基因型Phenotype ['fi?n?(?)ta?p] 表现型test cross测交

heterozygous [,het?r?u'zaiɡ?s]

杂合的Homozygous [,h?um?u'zaiɡ?s]

纯合的

dihybrid cross[da?'ha?br?d]

双因子杂合子杂交

law of segregation [,segr?'ge??(?)n] 分离定律law of independent assortment

[?'s??tm(?)nt] 自由组合定律

Binomial system of nomenclature

[ba?'n??m??l] [n??'me?kl?t??]

双命名法

Trait[tre?t] 性状Big Bang大爆炸Phylum (animals) ['fa?l?m] 门clade [kleid] 进化枝，分化单位Kingdom界Division (plants) [d?'v??(?)n] 门Order 目Class 纲Family 科Genus ['d?i?n?s] 属Species ['spi??i?z] 种Taxonomy [t?k's?n?m?] 分类学taxon (taxa) 分类单位Bioinformatics 生物信息学Phenome 表型组Genetics [d??'net?ks] 遗传学Genome ['d?i?n??m] 基因组Genomics [d??'nom?ks] 基因组学Transcript ['tr?nskr?pt] 转录本Transcriptome 转录组Proteome 蛋白质组Transcriptomics 转录组学Protein ['pr??ti?n]蛋白质Metabolism [m?'t?b?l?z(?)m] 代谢Metabolomics 代谢组学Proteomics 蛋白质组学

六、翻译——英翻中

NO.1 Cytoplasm: The dynamic, mobile factory 细胞质，动力工厂

Most of the properties we associated with life are properties of the cytoplasm.Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质，离子，可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。

Cytoplasm['sa?t??pl?z?m] n. 细胞质dynamic[da?'n?m?k]adj. 动态的

properties['pr?p?t?z]n. 性能；特征nutrient['nju?tr??nt]n. 营养物ion ['a??n]n.离子Cytoplasmic[,sait?u'pl?zmik] adj. 细胞质的Soluble ['s?lj?b(?)l] adj.可溶的

NO.2 The nucleus: information central 细胞核：信息中心

The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material (DNA) on chromosomes. A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope seperates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.

真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器，细胞核对染色体组有保护作用。核膜贯穿许多小孔，小分子可以自由通过核膜，而象mRNA和核糖体等大分子必须通过核孔运输。

Nucleus['nju?kl??s] n. 核eukaryotic [ju?,k?r?'?t?k] adj. 真核的via ['va??] prep.通过

Organelle [,??g?'nel]n. 细胞器chromosome ['kr??m?s??m]n. 染色体

Pore [p??]n. 孔perforated ['p?:f?reitid]adj. 穿孔的sac [s?k] n. 囊Envelope ['env?l??p] n.包膜ribosome ['ra?b?(?)s??m]n.核糖体

NO.3 Organelles: specialized work units 细胞器：特殊的功能单位

All eukaryotic cells contain most of the various kinds of organelles, and each organelle performs a specialized function in the cell. Organelles described in this section include ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, vacuoles, lysosomes, mitochondria, and the plastids of plant cells。

所有的真核细胞都含有多种细胞器，每个细胞器都有其特定功能。本节主要介绍核糖体，内质网，高尔基体系，液泡，溶酶体，线粒体和植物细胞中的质体。

A complete ribosome is composed of one larger and one smaller subunit. During protein synthesis the two subunits move along a strand of mRNA, “reading” the genetic sequence coded in it and translating that sequence into protein. Most cellular proteins are manufactured on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

完整的核糖体由大亚基和小亚基组成。核糖体沿着mRNA移动并阅读遗传密码，翻译成蛋白质。大多数细胞蛋白是由细胞质中核糖体生产。

The endoplasmic reticulum, a lacyarray of membranous sacs, tubules, and vesicles, may be either rough (RER) or smooth (SER). Both types play roles in the synthesis and transport of proteins.

内质网，带有花边的一列生物囊，有管状，泡状之分，以及光滑和粗糙面区别。两种都与蛋白质的合成和运输有关。

Transport vesicles may carry exportable molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to another membranous organelle, the Golgi complex. Within the Golgi complex molecules are modified and packaged for export out of the cell or for delivery else where in the cytoplasm.

运输小泡能够将可运输分子从内质网运输到高尔基复合体上。在高尔基复合体中修饰，包装后输出细胞或传递到细胞质中的其他场所。

Vacuoles in cells appear to be hollow sacs but are actually filled with fluid and soluble molecules. The most prominent vacuoles appear in plant cells and serves as water reservoirs and storage sites for sugars and other molecules.

细胞中的液泡好象是中空的，但实际上充满了液体和可溶分子。最典型的液泡存在于植物细胞中，储备水，糖以及其它分子。

Specialized ['spe??laizd]adj. 特定的endoplasmic [,end?u'pl?zmik] adj. 内质的reticulum [r?'t?kj?l?m] n. 网状组织vacuole ['v?kj???l]n. 液泡

Lysosome ['la?s?s??m] n. 溶酶体plastid['pl?st?d]n. 质体

Mitochondrion [,ma?t?(?)'k?ndr??n] n. 线粒体mitochondria [,ma?t??'k?ndr??]n. 线粒体（复数）subunit ['s?b,ju:nit] n. 亚基coded ['kod?d] adj. 编码的

cellular ['selj?l?] adj. 细胞的manufacture [m?nju'f?kt??]v. 制造，加工

lacy ['le?s?] adj. 花边的array [?'re?] n. 排列，一系列

membranous ['membr?n?s] adj. 膜状的tubule['tju?bju?l] n. 小管；细管

vesicle ['ves?k(?)l;]n. 泡exportable [?ks'port?bl]adj. 可输出的

Modified ['m?difaid] v. 修饰Packaged ['p?k?d?d] v. 包装

Delivery [d?'l?v(?)r?] n. 递送vacuole ['v?kj???l] n. 液泡

Hollow ['h?l??] adj.中空的prominent ['pr?m?n?nt] adj. 典型的

Reservoir ['rez?vwɑ: (r)] n. 水库

NO.4 Organelles: specialized work units 细胞器：特殊的功能单位

Mitochondria are the sites of energy-yielding chemical reactions in all cells. It is on the large surface area provided by the inner cristae of mitochondria that ATP-generating enzymes are located. Mitochondria are self-replicating, and probably they are the evolutionary descendants of what were once free-livingprokaryotes.

线粒体是细胞中化学产能的场所。线粒体内嵴上提供了很大的表面积并分布着产ATP酶。线粒体自我复制，并且可能是自由生活的原核生物在进化中形成的后代。

There are two types of plastids: leucoplasts, which lack pigment s and serve as storage sites for starch, proteins and oils; and chromoplasts, which contain pigments. The most important chromoplasts

arechloroplasts-organelles that contain the chlorophyll used in photosynthesis. The internal structure of chloroplasts includes stack s of membranes called grana, which are embedded , in a matrix called the stroma.

质体有两种类型：白色体，缺乏色素，是淀粉，蛋白质和油的储备场所；色质体，含有色素。叶绿体是最重要的色质体，含有与光合作用有关的叶绿素。叶绿体的内部结构是由多层膜形成的叶绿体基粒，其中包埋在基质中的基粒称子座。

The cytoskeleton: All eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton, which is a convoluted latticework of filaments and tubules that appears to fill all available space in the cell and provides support for various other organelles.

细胞骨架：所有真核细胞都有细胞骨架,它是一个复杂的网格状的细丝和小管。这种网络结构的纤丝和小管充满了它所能触及的全部空间并且对细胞器提供支持作用。

The components of cytoskeleton consist of threadlike microfilaments composed of contractile protein actin and myosin; and microtubules composed of the globular protein tubulin.

细胞骨架的元件包括由可收缩的肌动蛋白和肌球蛋白构成的丝状微丝以及由球状蛋白组成的微管。

Cellualr movements: Although the cytoskeleton provides some stability to cell, its microtubules and filaments and their associated proteins enable cells to move by creeping or gliding.

细胞内的运动：尽管细胞骨架提供了细胞的某些稳定性，微丝，微管及相关蛋白能使细胞爬行或滑动。

Surface['s??f?s] n. 表面inner [?n?] adj. 内部的cristae脊

generate ['d?en?re?t] vt. 发生descendant [d?'send(?)nt] n. 后裔；子孙；后代

free-living['fri:'livi?] adj. 独立生存的prokaryote [pr??'k?r???t] n. 原核生物Leucoplast['lu?k?(?)pl?st] n. 白色体pigment['p?gm(?)nt]n. 色素

Starch [stɑ?t?] n. 淀粉chromoplast ['kr??m?pl?st] n. 有色体

Chlorophyll ['kl??r?f?l] n. 叶绿素photosynthesis [,f??t?(?)'s?nθ?s?s] n. 光合作用Stack [st?k] n. 堆；堆叠granum['gre?n?m] n. 基粒

Embed [?m'bed]vt. 栽种；使嵌入grana['ɡr?n?] n. 基粒（pl）

stroma ['str??m?] n. 基质；子座matrix['me?tr?ks] n. 基质

cytoskeleton[,sait?u'skel?t?n]n. 细胞骨架convoluted [,k?nv?'l(j)u?t?d] adj. 复杂的latticework ['l?t?swerk] n. 网格filament ['f?l?m(?)nt] n. 灯丝；细丝

threadlike ['θredlaik] adj. 丝状的；细长的microfilament [,maikr?u'fil?m?nt] n.微丝contractile [k?n'tr?kta?l] adj. 会缩的actin ['?kt?n] n. 肌动蛋白

Myosin ['ma??(?)s?n]n. 肌球蛋白microtubule [ma?kr?(?)'tju?bju?l] n. [细胞] 微管Tubulin ['tju:bjulin] n.微管蛋白creep [kri?p] n. 爬行glide [gla?d]n.滑行

Lesson 2

NO.5 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs only in the chlorophyll-containing cells of green plants, algae, and certain protists and bacteria. Overall, it is a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the form of molecular bonds.光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞，海藻，某些原生动物和细菌之中。总体来说，这是一个将光能转化成化学能，并将能量贮存在分子键中。

Photosynthesis starts with CO2and H2O as raw materials and proceed s through two sets of partial reactions.In the first set, called the light –dependent reactions, water molecules are split (oxidized), O2is released, and A TP and NADPH are formed. These reactions must take place in the presence of light energy. In the second set, called light-independent reactions, CO2 is reduced (via the addition of H atoms) to carbohydrate. These chemical events rely on the electron carrier NADPH and A TP generated by the first set of reactions.

光合作用以二氧化碳和水为原材料并经历两步化学反应。第一步，称光反应，水分子分解，氧分子释放，ATP和NADPH形成。此反应需要光能的存在。第二步，称暗反应，二氧化碳被还原成碳水化合物，这步反应依赖电子载体NADPH以及第一步反应产生的ATP。

Both sets of reactions take place in chloroplasts. Most of the enzymes and pigments for the light-dependent reactions are embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. The dark reactions take place in the stroma. The light-dependent reaction converts solar energy into chemical-bond energy, while the light-independent reactions build carbohydrates.两步反应都发生在叶绿体中。光反应需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在叶绿体的类囊体膜上。暗反应发生在基质中。光反应讲光能转化成化学键能。暗反应产生碳水化合物。

The light-independent reactions are also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle.暗反应又叫做卡尔文循环Algae[??ld?i?] n.藻类certain ['s??t(?)n] pron. 某些protists ['pr?utist] n. 原生生物

Bacteria[b?k't??r??] n.细菌convert [k?n'v??t] vt. 使转变

Raw[r??] adj.未加工的proceed [pr?'si?d] vi. 开始；继续进行

Split[spl?t]vt. 分解oxidize['?ks?da?z]vt. 使氧化

carbohydrate [kɑ?b?'ha?dre?t]n.碳水化合物thylakoid['θa?l?k??d] n. 类囊体

electron [?'lektr?n] n. 电子solar['s??l?] adj. 太阳的

NO.6 Oxygen: An inhibitor of photosynthesis 氧：光合作用的抑制因子

High levels of oxygen in plant cells can disrupt photosynthesis and can also cause photorespiration—an inefficient form of the dark reactions in which O2 is fixed rather than CO2 and no carbohydrate is produced.

植物细胞中高浓度的氧气会光合作用同时导致光呼吸---使得暗反应因为固定氧气而不是CO2导致效率低下，并且没有碳水化合物形成

oxygen ['?ks?d?(?)n] n.氧气disrupt[d?s'r?pt] vt. 破坏；使瓦解

Photorespiration[,f??t??resp?'re??(?)n] n.光呼吸inefficient[?n?'f??(?)nt] adj. 无效率的

NO.7 Reprieve from photorespiration: the C4 pathway 光呼吸的延缓：碳4途径

Most plants are C3plants; they experience decreased carbohydrate production under hot, dry conditions as a result of the effects of photorespiration. Among C4 plants, however, special leaf anatomy and a unique biochemical pathway enable the plant to thrive in arid conditions.

大部分植物是碳3植物，在高温干旱条件下，由于光呼吸作用而使碳水化合物的合成降低。而在大多数的碳4植物中，由于叶脉的特殊构造和独特的化学路径使植物依然很茂盛。

Thus C4plants lessen photorespiration by carrying out photosynthesis only in cells that are insulated from high levels of CO2. They also possess a novel mechanism for carbon fixation

因此C4植物通过只在细胞中进行光合作用来减少光呼吸，隔绝高水平的二氧化碳。他们还拥有一个新的固碳机制。

reprieve [r?'pri?v] n. 暂缓vt. 缓期执行anatomy[?'n?t?m?] n. 解剖；解剖学；构造Thrive[θra?v] vi. 繁荣arid ['?r?d] adj. 干旱的

Lessen['les(?)n]vt.使…减少insulate ['?nsj?le?t]vt. 隔离

fixation [f?k'se??(?)n] n. 固定carbon ['kɑ?b(?)n] n.碳

NO.8 Gregor Mendel and the Birth of Genetic格雷戈尔.孟德尔以及遗传学的诞生

Gregor Mendel , an Augustinian monk in the monastery at Brunn, Austria, is known as the “father of genetics”. Having been exposed to theories of the particulate nature of matter while a university student and having a background in mathematics, Mendel carried out a series of carefully planned experiments that demonstrated the particulate nature of hereditary. His revolutionary ideas were neither understood nor accepted until many years after Mendel died.

孟德尔，一名奥地利布鲁恩的修道士，众所周知的遗传学之父。当他还是大学生时就提出了物质的粒子属性以及有数学背景。孟德尔进行了一系列周密安排的实验来证实遗传的颗粒性。直到他去世后，他的理论才被理解和接受。

Augustinian [,?:ɡ?'stini?n] n. 奥古斯丁修会会士monk [m??k] n. 修道士

monastery ['m?n?st(?)r?] n. 修道院Austria['?stri?] n. 奥地利Brunnn. 布鲁恩particulate [pɑ?'t?kj?l?t] n. 微粒，微粒状物质theory ['θ??r?] n. 理论；原理Mathematics [m?θ(?)'m?t?ks] n. 数学；数学运算hereditary [h?'red?t(?)r?] adj. 遗传的

NO.9 Mendel’s Classic Experiments孟德尔的经典实验

Mendel studied genetics through plant-breeding experiments with the garden pea, a plant species that is self fertilizing and breeds true (each offspring is identical to the parent in trait of interest). To test the blending theory,he focused his research on seven distinct characters. Each of these characters, such as seed color and plant height, present only two, clear-cut possibilities. He also recorded the type and number of all progeny produced from each pair of parent pea plants, and followed the results of each cross for two generations.

孟德尔通过豌豆实验研究遗传学，豌豆是自花授粉植物和纯品系（按照母本的特征分离子代）。为验证融合理论，他的研究主要集中在7个特征上。例如，种子颜色，植株高度，这些特征只有两个明确的可能性。他记录了产生的每一个子代类型和数量，在杂交产生子2代。

For each of the characters he studied, Mendel found that one trait was dominant while the other was recessive. In the second filial (F2) generation, the ratio of dominant to recessive was 3:1. Mendel deduced that this result was possible only if each individual possesses only two hereditary units, one from each parent. The units Mendel hypothesized are today known as allele s, alternative forms of genes. Genes are the basic units of hereditary. An organism that inherits identical alleles for a trait from each parent is said to be homozygous for that trait; if different alleles for a trait are inherited, the organism is heterozygous for that trait.

对于每个特征而言，要么显形，要么隐性。在子2代中显形与隐性比为3∶1。孟德尔发现：只有在每个个体仅拥有两个研究遗传单元，并每个单元来自一个亲代时，实验结果才成立。此遗传单元就是今天共识的等位基因。基因是遗传的基本单位。两个一样的等位基因决定一个特征，称纯合。相反，称杂合。

The results of Mendel’s experiments on dominant and recessive inheritance led to Mendel’s first law: the law of segregation. This law states that for a given trait an organism inherits one allele from each parent. Together these alleles form the allele pair. When gametes are formed during meiosis, the two alleles become separated (halving of chromosome number). To gain evidence for his theory Mendel performed test crosses, mating plants of unknown genotype to plants that were homozygous recessive for the trait of interest. The ratio of dominant phenotypes (if any) in the progeny makes clear whether the unknown genotype is heterozygous, homozygous dominant, or homozygous recessive.

孟德尔显性和隐性遗传实验的结果得出了孟德尔第一定律。分离定律，生物只遗传父母一对等位基因的一个。减数分裂期形成配子时两个等位基因分离（染色体数目减半）。为验证此理论，他做了测交实验，即基因型未知的植物与纯合的隐性基因植物杂交。子代显性表型可以明确测得杂合基因或纯合基因的基因型。

Breed[bri?d] vt. 繁殖；种植pea [pi?] n. 豌豆

fertilize ['f??t?la?z] vt. 使受精；使肥沃offspring ['?fspr??] n. 后代，子孙

Blend[blend] n. 混合；融合clear-cut ['kli?'k?t]adj. 清晰的

Progeny['pr?d??n?]n. 子孙；后裔；成果dominant['d?m?n?nt] n. 显性adj. 显性的Recessive[r?'ses?v] adj. 隐性的filial ['f?l??l] adj. 子女的

hypothesize [ha?'p?θ?sa?z] vt. 假设，假定allele ['?li?l]n. 等位基因

Alternative[??l't??n?t?v] adj. 供选择的Organism['??g(?)n?z(?)m] n. 有机体；生物体；微生物

inherit [?n'her?t] vt. 继承；遗传而得identical[a?'dent?k(?)l] n./adj.完全相同的

Homozygous [,h?um?u'zaiɡ?s] adj. 纯合子的heterozygous [,het?r?u'zaiɡ?s] adj. 杂合的

inheritance [?n'her?t(?)ns]n. 继承；遗传；遗产segregation [,segr?'ge??(?)n] n. 隔离，分离

Gamete['g?mi?t]n. [生物] 配子meiosis [ma?'??s?s] n. 减数分裂

Mate[me?t] vt. 使配对；交配genotype ['d?en?ta?p] n. 基因型；遗传型

NO.10 The Mendel’s Ideas and the Law of Independent Assortment.孟德尔的想法和独立分离定律

Mendel also performed dihybrid crosses, which enabled him to consider how two traits are inherited relative to one another. This work led to the law of independent assortment, which states that the alleles of genes governing different charac ters are inherited independently. An apparent exception to Mendel’s law is incomplete dominance, a phenomenon in which offspring of a cross exhibit a phenotype that is intermediate between those of the parents. However, incomplete dominance reflects the fact that both alleles for that trait in question exert an effect on the phenotype. The alleles themselves remain separate.

双因子杂合试验，两个特征是如何相互影响遗传的。试验结果产生独自分配定律，即等位基因独立遗传。特例是，不完全显性。子代的表型是父母本的中间类型。不完全显性说明了两个等位基因对表型都有影响。等位基因会继续分离。

Mendel presented his ideas in 1866 in a scientific paper published by the Brunn Society for Natural History. Unfortunately, the meaning of his research was not understood by other scientists of the day. His work was rediscovered in 1900 by Carl Correns and Hugo de Vires. 1866年，孟德尔在布鲁恩《自然史》上发表了他的科学论文，陈诉了他的观点。不幸的是，他的研究不被当时科学家接受。在1900年，他的工作才被卡尔.科伦斯和雨果.德.维雷斯两位再次发现。

assortment [?'s??tm(?)nt] n. 分类；混合物dihybrid [da?'ha?br?d] n. 双因子杂种adj. 双因子杂种的Dominance ['d?m?n?ns] n. 优势；显性intermediate[,?nt?'mi?d??t] adj. 中间的，中级的phenotype ['fi?n?(?)ta?p] n. 表现型

NO.11 The Nucleus and Chromosomes 细胞核和染色体

The cell nucleus is the main repository of genetic information. Within the nucleus are the chromosomes-tightly coiled strands of DNA and clusters of associated proteins. Long stretches of the continuous DNA molecule wind around these clusters of proteins, or histones, forming beadlike complexes known as nucleosomes. More coiling and supercoiling produces a dense chromosome structure. Each long strand of DNA combines with histones and nonhistone proteins to make up the substances chromatin.

细胞核是贮藏遗传信息的主要场所。DNA盘绕成螺旋线以及相关的成簇蛋白质。DNA螺旋线缠绕成簇的组蛋白形成珠链状的核小体。这些螺旋和超螺旋形成致密的染色体组结构。每个长链DNA与组蛋白和非组蛋白一起构成染色质物质。

A pictorial display of an organism’s chromosomes in the coiled, condensed state is known as a karyotype. Karyotypes reveal that in most cells all but sex chromosomes are present as two copies, referred to as homologous pairs. Non-sex chromosomes are called autosomes. Organisms whose cells contain two sets of parental chromosomes are called diploid; those with cells containing a single set of parental chromosomes are called haploid.

染色体致密的超螺旋状态我们称染色体组。除了性染色体外，大多数细胞的染色体组成对出现，称同源染色体对。非性染色体称常染色体。生物细胞含有两套父母本染色体的称二倍体；含有单套染色体的称单倍体。

repository [r?'p?z?t(?)r?] n. 贮藏室coil [k??l] vt. 盘绕，把…卷成圈

Cluster['kl?st?] n. 簇vt. 使聚集stretch [stret?] n. 伸展，延伸vt. 伸展,张开wind [w?nd] n.卷绕vt. 缠绕beadlike [bi?dla?k]adj. 珠状的

Nucleosome['nju:kli?s?um] n. 核小体supercoil ['sju:p?k?il] n. 超外差线圈；超螺旋dense [dens] adj. 致密的nonhistone [n?n'h?st??n] adj. 非组蛋白的

chromatin ['kr??m?t?n] n. 核染色质；核染质pictorial[p?k't??r??l] adj. 绘画的；形象化的Condense[k?n'dens] vt. 使浓缩homologous [h?'m?l?g?s] adj. [生物] 同源的

Karyotype['k?r??(?)ta?p] n. 染色体组型autosome ['??t????m] n. 常染色体

parental [p?'rentl] adj. 父母亲的diploid ['d?pl??d] n. 二倍体

haploid ['h?pl??d] n. 单倍体

NO.12 The cell cycle 细胞周期

The cell cycle is a regular sequence in which the cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form two daughter cells, each of which then repeats the cycle. Such cycling in effect makes single-celled organism immortal. Many cells in multicellular organisms, including animalmuscle and nerve cells, either slow the cycle or break out of it altogether.

在细胞生长过程中，细胞周期遵循特定程序，分裂准备，分裂成2个子细胞，子细胞再循环。此循环使得单细胞永生。多细胞生物中的许多细胞，包括动物肌肉和神经细胞，要么降低循环速度，要么同时分裂。

The normal cell cycle consists of four phases. The first three include G1, the period of normal metabolism; S phase, during which normal synthesis of biological molecules continues, DNAis replicated, and histones are synthesized; and G2, a brief period of metabolism and additional growth.

正常细胞循环由4个时期组成。头三期包括G1,正常新陈代谢；S期,正常新陈代谢同时，DNA复制，组蛋白合成；G2 期，短期的新陈代谢和少许生长。

Together the G1, S, and G2 phase are called interphase. The fourth phase of the cell cycle is M phase, the period of mitosis, during which the replicated chromosomes condenses and move and the cell divides. It is believed that properties of the cell cytoplasm control the cell cycle, along with external stimulaters and inhibitors such as chalones.

G1,s,G2合起来称为间期。细胞周期的第四个阶段的M期即有丝分裂期,在此时期,染色体复制浓缩、移动以及细胞分裂。认为胞浆的性质控制细胞周期,以及外部刺激物和抑制剂，如chalones。

division [d?'v??(?)n] n.分割；分离daughter ['d??t?] n. 女儿；子代

immortal [?'m??t(?)l] adj. 永生的multicellular [m?lt?'selj?l?] adj.多细胞的

nerve [n??v] n. 神经phase [fe?z] n. 阶段

synthesize ['s?nθ?sa?z] vt. 合成interphase['?nt?fe?z] n.间期

mitosis [ma?'t??s?s] n.有丝分裂stimulate ['st?mj?le?t] vi. 起刺激作用；起促进作用

chalone ['k?l??n] n.抑素

NO.13 Mitosis: Partitioning the HereditaryMaterial有丝分裂:分区的遗传物质

Biologists divide the mitotic cycle into four phases. At the beginning of prophase the chromosomes each consist of two highly condensed chromatin s attached to each other at a centromere. As prophase ends and metaphase begins, the condensed chromosomes become associated with the spindle.Eventually the chromosomes become arranged in a plane (called the metaphase plate) at a right angle to the spindle fibers.Next, during anaphase, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome split, and one from each pair is drawn toward each pole of the cell. During telophase nuclear envelopes begin to form around each set of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm takes place.

生物学家将有丝分裂划分为4个阶段。分裂前期，高度浓缩的两个染色单体通过着丝粒连接在一起。在分裂前期最后和分裂中期开始，浓缩的染色体与纺锤体相连。最后以正确的角度排列在赤道板上。在分裂后期，两个姊妹单体分离，分别拽向细胞两极。在分裂末期，在每套染色体周围形成核膜，细胞质发生分裂。

partition [pɑ?'t??(?)n] vt. 分割mitotic [mai't?tik] adj. [细胞] 有丝分裂的centromere ['sentr?(?)m??] n.着丝粒metaphase ['met?fe?z] n.中期；四分体时期spindle ['sp?nd(?)l] n. 纺锤丝arrange[?'re?n(d)?]vi. 安排；排列

angle ['??g(?)l] n. 角度fiber ['faib?]n. 纤维

anaphase ['?n?fe?z] n.后期chromatid ['kr??m?t?d] n.染色单体

split [spl?t] vt. 分离；使分离draw [dr??] vi. 拉；拖

telophase ['ti?l?(?)fe?z]n.末期

NO.14 Cytokinesis: Partitioning of Cytoplasm胞质分裂：细胞质分离

The division of the cell cytoplasm at the end of mitosis is called cytokinesis. In animal cells it takes place as a ring of actin filaments contracts around the cell equator, pinching the cell in two. In plant cells, which are bounded by a cell wall, cytokinesis involves the building of a new cell plate across the dividing cell at its equator. Cell wall material is then deposited in the region of the cell plate.动物细胞中，环形肌动蛋白丝延赤道板收缩而使细胞一分为二。在植物细胞中，在赤道板形成新的细胞板。

NO.15 Meiosis: The Basis of Sexual Reproduction减数分裂:有性繁殖的基础

Mitosis is a special form of cell division that takes place in the reproductive organs that produce sex cells. Like mitosis, it takes place after DNA replication has occurred and involves two sequential nuclear divisions (meiosisⅠand meiosis Ⅱ). These divisions result in four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

减数分裂是性细胞分裂的特殊形式。如有丝分裂，它也是发生在DNA 复制后并有连续的两个核分裂（减Ⅰ和减Ⅱ）。产生4个子细胞，分别含有亲本染色体数的一半。

The phenomenon of crossing over during meiosis results in exchanges of genetic information between chromosomes. Hence, the homologous chromosomes distributed to different progeny cells are not identical. 减数分裂中，交叉互换导致染色体间的信息交流。因此,同源染色体分配给不同的子细胞并不相同。

sexual ['sek???l] adj.有性的reproduction [ri?pr?'d?k?(?)n] n.繁殖

Reproductive[,ri?pr?'d?kt?v] adj. 生殖的organ['??g(?)n] n.器官

sequential [s?'kwen?(?)l] adj. 连续

NO.16 Asexual Versus Sexual Reproduction无性与有性生殖

Mitosis and meiosis, respectively, make simple cell division and sexual reproduction possible. Each means of passing on hereditary information has advantages. In asexual reproduction the parent organism gives rise to offspring that are genetic clones of the parent. The advantages of this type of reproduction are that it preserves the parent’s successful genetic complement, requires little or no specialization of reproductive organs, and is more rapid than sexual reproduction. 有丝分裂和减数分裂分别使简单的细胞分裂和有性繁殖成为可能；他们在传递遗传信息过程中各有优势。无性繁殖就是父母本的克隆，其优势是成功地保留了父母本遗传信息，不需要特殊生殖器官，比有性生殖快的多。

A major disadvantage of the asexual mode is that a single catastrophic event or disease may destroy an entire population of genetically identical organisms. A prime benefit of sexual reproduction is that it provides genetic variability and a ready mechanism for the elimination of deleterious mutations. It also allows “new” gene forms to arise and spread through populations. 是无性繁殖模式的主要缺点是：一个简单灾难性事件或疾病都可能摧毁一个基因完全相同的细胞群体。有性生殖的主要优势是它提供了遗传的可变性和现存排除有害突变的机制。也可以产生新基因并在种群中蔓延。

asexual [e?'seksj??l] adj.无性生殖的versus['v??s?s] prep. 对；与...相对

Complement['k?mpl?m(?)nt] n.补足物specialization [,spe??la?'ze???n] n. 专门化；特殊化