对亨利·梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的生态解读

对外经济贸易大学

硕士学位论文

对亨利·梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的生态解读

姓名:童慧雁

申请学位级别:硕士

专业:英语

指导教师:蒋显璟

20050401

摘要

亨利?大卫?梭罗(HenryDavidThoreau,1817.1862)是十九世纪美国超验士义哲学家、

文学家、当代环境主义运动的先驱。在十九世纪中叶的美国超验主义者中.他的名字儿乎是自然的同义词,田二l:『他将一生奉献给了自然,写下了大量反恩人与自然关系的文学作品。他的作品《瓦尔登湖》、《在康科德河和梅里马克河上一周》和‘缅因森林》等都充满了对门然景物细致入微的描写,闪烁着早期生态哲学思想的光芒。

/一

j梭罗在世时并没有受到同代人的认可。随着二十世纪r半叶全球性环境运动的兴起,梭罗被重新发现,其作品成为文学评论家们研究的热点。他的代表作<瓦尔登湖》更是田其优美的文字和深刻的思想内涵吸引着众多读者。‘瓦尔登湖》多次在<美国遗产》客志评选的t?十本构成美国人性格的书”中位居榜首,被称为美国文学史上的?t绿色圣经”jfc舞。““

,本文试图通过对‘瓦尔登湖》的文本分析,从生态批评的角度对之进行解读,挖掘其中蕴舍的生态思想.探索梭罗在(瓦尔登湖》中给我们的启示.思考我们当代面临的问题:自

然与人、自然与文明该保持什么样的关系才有利于整个地球生态圈的良性发展?人应该怎样

生活?什么样的生活是灵性,智慧的生活?

本文共分四个部分。第一部分简述生态文学批评的发展辣络、研究内容、目的及其主要

理论来源。生态文学批评是二十世纪后期随着生态哲学和环境主义运动的蓬勃发震而出现的

一种新的文学理论。其研究的主要内容是自然、自然与人、自然与文化的关系等在文学作品

中的表达和体现,目的是通过对文学作品的生态解读唳醒人们的生态意识。其主要理论来源

是利舆波德的大地伦理学和奈斯的深屡生态学思想。

第二部分主要探讨《瓦尔登湖》的写作背景。十九世纪中划,美国l:业化快速发展。f

业文明带来经济繁荣的同时.也给自然环境造成严重破坏:物质主义的泛潞给人f『J带米精神

危机。不和现实妥协的梭罗走向瓦尔登湖.走向自然.开始自己的精神探索和生活实践。

第三部分是全文的核心。这部分通过对《瓦尔登湖》的文本分析,探讨作品中的生态意蕴。梭罗在《瓦尔登潮》中表达了深刻的生态思想。弛认为人类是自然的一部分.自然有其

存住的内在价值,人和自然的关系应由“哉一你”对立转变为“部分一锻体”的融合才f『利1’糕个生态系统的繁荣和发展:在‘瓦自{登湖》中,棱罗质疑人类对白然的统治权力,谴责

人类对环境的镀坏;他认为与自然融台是自我实现、自我完善的途径:他追求外在简朴、内

征丰富和多样的生活方式.认为精神的圆满米Lh丁灵性生活和诗意生存。梭罗的这些思想为当代生态哲学奠定了重要基础。

第四部分着重讨论了《瓦尔登湖》的影响及其现实意义。梭罗谶称为自然文学之父,《瓦尔登湖》在自然文学史上有着里程碑式的意义,它以深刻的精神内涵影响着一代义一代生态文学作家。对于同样面l临生态危机和精神危机的现代人,研读《瓦尔登湖》具有深刻的现实意义。

关键词:自然:生态;人和、洙的关系;¨,棒复zfR卢尽鉴矗8))

II

Abstract

HenryDavidThoreau(ISl7-1s62)isthe19t“centuryAmericantranscendentalist,writerandthepioneerofmodernenvironmentalism.Hisnameisalmostsynonymouswithnaturebecausehehasdevotedhisentirelifeintoobservingandstudyingnatureandwrittenmanyliteraryworksrecordinghisideasonman—naturerelationship.HisworkssuchasWalden.AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRiversandMaineWoodsarefamousfortheirdetaileddescriptionofnatureandprofoundecologicalthoughts.

Inhisowntime.ThoreauwasdismissedasaminorwriterfollowinghismentorRalphWaldoEmerson.Withthedevelopmentofenvironmentalismiathelate20“century,Thoreauwasrediscoveredandhisworkshavebecomethefocalresearchofmanyliterarycritics.HismasterpieceWaldenappealstomoreandmorereadersforitsbeautifulwritingstyleanddeepspiritualconnotations.WaldenhasmorethanoncebeenratedasnumberOneinthetengreatestbooksthathavecontributedtoshapingtheAmericanmindbythemagazineAmericanHeritage.

Thisthesisintendstogive卸ecocrnIcaIstudyofWaldenthroughreadingthetextfromtheperspectiveofceocriticism,probingtheprofoundecologicalimplicationsreflectedinthiswork.Andthisstudyisofgreathelpinleadingustothinkingaboutthefollowingquestions:whatkindofman?naturerelationshipshallweestablishthatwillbenefitthedevelopmentofthewholeeeosphere?Andwhatkindoflifeshouldwelive?

Thisthesisconsistsoffourparts.Inthefirstpart1intendtogiveanoverviewofecocriticismconcerningitsdeveloFrnent,researchfocusesandpurposeaswellasitstheoreticalsources.Ecocritieismisanewlyemergingliteraryperspectivewithnature,mall—naturerelationshipandnature-culturerelationshipreflectedinliteraryworksasitsmainresearchfocuses.Thepurposeofecoeriticismistopromotetheecologicalawarenessofpeoplethroughanalyzingnatureinliterature.ThemaintheoreticalsourcesofeeocriticismareLeopold’SLandEthicandNaess’DeepEcology.

ParttwomainlydiscussesSomeimportantfactors,suchasthe

geographicalandculturalcontexts,whichplayedanimportantroleintheformationofThoreau’SWalden.Thoreatl‘s

111

timesawtheconflictsbetweentheindustrialcivilizationandtheArcadianlifestyledreamedbytheidealistictranscendentalists.Facedwiththeenvironmentalandspiritualcrisesbroughtaboutbyindustrialization,ThoreauwenttoWaldenPondtopursuehisindependentexplorationinnature.Itwasduringtheovertwoyears’intimatecommunionwithnaturethatThoreaucreatedhismasterpieceWalden,

ThethirdpartseekstoanalyzetheecologicalimplicationscontainedinWaldenthroughclosetextreading.Thoreau'sconceptofnatul℃andhisviewsonEqao—naturerelationshipcoincidewithmodernecologicalphilosophysuchasLandEthicandDeepEcologyThisiswhyThoreauisoftenconsideredasall‘'ecologist”beforeecologyappeared.Thoreauthinksthatnaturehasitsintrinsicvalueandmanisapartandparcelofnature;goingtonatureisawayofachievingSelf-realization.Heemphasizestheshiftofman’srelationshipwithnaturefrom“I—Thou”to“Part--Whole”,ThevoluntarysimplicityanddiversityoflifeisthewaytowardsawiserandsailerIife.

Inthefourthchapter,IintendtodealwiththelegacyleftbyWaldenanditsrealisticsignificances.WaldenisaclassichavinglandmarksignificaneesinthehistoryofAmericannaturewriting.Ithasmuchinfluenceoilnaturewritingsinthefollowingages.Fornsmodempeople,therealisticsignificaacesofstudyingWaldenarcthatithelpsawakepeople’secologicalawarenb-ssandpromoteamoreecologicallifestylethatharmonizeswiththeenvironment

KeyWords:nature,ecology,man—naturerelationship

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本人声明所曼交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。摇我所知.除了文中特另玎加以标注和致谢的嬉方外,论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果,也不包含为获得墨妻皇【:堡量坠亟星垄耋一或其他教育机构的学位或证书1—”—‘。。。‘_———_-———?_-—_————|■?———_—=——————一』㈣Mo-¥wJj…●。而使用过的材料。与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并襄示谢意。

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本学位论文作者完全了解圣!兰L兰至:至叟星墨整.有关保留、使用学位论文的规定,有权保留并向国家有关郏门或机均送交论文的复印件和磁盘,允t午论文被查阕和借阅。本人授权兰i!i:§至壹亟暨墨整

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Introduction

AsThoreau’smentorandfriend,RalphWaldoEmerson(I803一l882)describedThoreau

inhisaddressatThoreau’sfunerallikethis:

TheCOUnt/yknowsnotyet,orintheleastpart,howgreatasonithaslost.Itseemsaninjurythatheshouldleaveinthemidsthisbrokentaskwhichnoneelsecanfinish,akindofindignitytosonobleasoulthatheshoulddepartoutofNaturebeforeyethehasreallyshowntohispeersforwhatheis.Buthe,atleast,iscontent.Hissoulwasmadeforthenoblestsociety;hehadinashortlifeexhaustedthecapabilitiesofthisworld,whereverthereisknowledge,whereverthereisvirtue,whereverthereisbeauty,hewillfindahome.(Emerson502)

AlthoughEmerson’sopinionsexpressedinhiseulogytoThoreauarepartial,this

forthenoblestparagraphindeedgeneralizedtheCOreofThoreau’sspirit:anoblesouImade

societywhohasdevotedallhislifetonature.

BorninConcordandalmosthavingspentallhislifethere,HenryDavidThoreau

r1917-1862)madenumeroustravelstothenaturearounditandleftusabundantrecordsinhisjournals.Hecelebratednature'swildnessandtookitashislifecareertoarriveatadeepunderstandingofnature.OnJuly41845,hebe擘mthelivingexperimentatWaldenPond.Duringhistwo-year-two?monthstayatWalden,heproducedthreeworks,whichwerethemostinfluential,andtwoofthemwereconsideredashismasterpieces.ThefirstoneisAWeek

theConcordandMerrimackRivers(1849);thesecondisCivilDbobedience.whichon

derivedfromhisexperienceofbeingarrestedforrefusingtopaythetolltaxtoagovernment

thatThoreauthoughtunjustandgreedy;andthethirdoneisWalden--thetIghnotfinished,thematerialshadbeengathered.

Inhisowntime,withthegrowingfameofsuchwritersasHawthorne,Melville,Emerson

andWhitman,ThoreaudidnotmakehisnamewellknownandhewasgenerallydismissedasaminorwriterundertheshadowofEmerson.YetThoreaudidnotceasetopursuehisowrlwayforbeingneglectedbyothers.HeearnestlykeptonhisexplorationinnatureandwrotedownwhatheobservedandthorIghtofinnaturewhileatthesametimeheputthemintopractice.

AshesaidinWalden:

Tobeaphilosopherisnotmerelytohavesubtlethought,noreventofoundaschool,butSOtOlovewisdomastoliveaccordingtoitsdictates,alifeofsimplicity,independence,magnanimity,andtrnst,Itistosolvesomeoftheproblemsoflife,notonlytheoretically,butalsopractically.(Walden116)

Thoreauissucharealphilosopherwholiveshisprinciples.Beginninginthel930s,interestinThoreaubegantorisemarkedly.HenrySeidelCanby。SI939biography,Thoreau,reachedthebest—sellerlists,InJuly1941,theThoreauSocietyofAmericawasfoundedatameetinginConcord.Stillactivetoday,theThoreauSociety’Spurposeis‘‘tohonorHenryDavidThoreau,bystimulatinginterestinandfosteringeducationabouthislife,works,andphilosophyandhisplaceinhisworldandours,bycoordinatingresearchonhislifeandwritings,andbyactingasarepositoryforThoreauvianaandmaterialrelevanttoHenryDavidThoreau,andbyadvocatingforthepreservationofThoreauCountry.”(Harding&Meyer7)

SixeditionsofWaldenwerepublishedin1948,elevenin1958,andtwenty-threein1968,alongwithmanyeditionsofhisotherworks,In1966,aprojecttoeditandpublishallofThoreau。SwritingswasundertakenbyagroupofscholarsunderthesponsorshipoftheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities.UndertheeditorshipofWalterHarding,WilliamL.Howarth,andElizabethWithemll,theproject。TheWritingsojHenryD.Thoreau,haspublishedfourteenofitsprojectedthirty-volumeserieswithPrincetonUniversityPress.ThePrincetonEditionofWaldenwaspublishedin1971.

Withthedevelopmentofmodernenvironmentalism,Thoreau’Sphilosophyandhisworksincreasinglyappealtomodernpeople.Hisreputationexperiencedagreatriseinthelate20thcentury.Thoreauisnowmorewidelyreadandresearchedthananyothertranscendentalists,includingEmerson.His‘'CivilDisobedience’’hasprovidedanimportanttoolformodernenvironmentalismandheevenbecameapatronsaintfortheenvironmentalmovement.HislivingexperimentatWaldenhasbecomeamythinpeople’SimaginationandtheworkWalden

recordinghisthoughtonman—naturerelationshipisconsideredasoneofthegreatestclassicsinecologicalliterature.

Asaclassicinnaturewriting,Waldenhasbecomethefocalresearchofmanyecocrilics

InWalden,ThoreautakesthesmallpondWaldenasthemicrocosmofnaturewherehe

can

communewithallthelivingthingsandseektoestablishaharmonious

relationshipwith

viewsonman.naturerelationshipthatanticipateecologicalnaturc.Heexpresseshis

isaheadofhistimeinthatwhatheadvocatedinthe19thcenturyisphilosophy.Thoreau

inthe13extcenturyandthereforeheissometimesca(1edanpropheticofwhatwillhappen

。‘ecologicalprophet”.

When1readWaldenforthefirsttimeduringmyundergraduatestudy,1wasdeeply

thebeginningoftouchedbytherhetoricalprowessThoreaudeployedinhisbook.Thatwas

WaldenandtheauthorThoreau.AfterhavingreadsomebooksonWalden,mydeepinterestin

Icometoknowthatitismorethananartisticmasterpiece.Itisasmultifacetedasawholeiewelcaseofdiamonds.And矗sanaturebook,itcontainsprofoundecologicalimplications,

ofeverythinginnature,ThoreauisoneoftheSeekingfortheharmonyandintegrity

forerunnersofwesternecologicalphilosophies.Hisdeepecologicalconsciousnessandhismodeoflifemightshedlightonwhathumansshoulddowiththerelationshipbetweenthemselvesandnatureandtheconnectionbetweencivilizationandtheenvironment.Aswe

facedwiththeconflictsbctrweenenvironmentanddevelopmentbroughtaboutbyare

modernization,itisofgreatsignificancetoprobetheecologicalimplicationsinthisbook-Inthisthesis1intendtostudyWaldenusing。cocriticismandtoprovethatmuchofThoreau’S

Waldenareconsistentwiththeconceptofnatureandphilosophyoflifereflectedin

EthicandDeepunderlyingprinciplesofmodemecologicalphilosophy,especiallyLand

theoreticalsourcesofecoeriticism.

Ecologywhichareimportant

1.AnOverviewofEcocriticism

Ecocriticismisoneofthemostrecentinterdisciplinaryfieldsthathaveemergedin

stillliteraryandculturalstudies.Itbeganinthe1970s'burgeonedinthelate1990sandis

betweentheliteraryexperiencingitsboomingdevelopmentatpresent.Stressingthelinkage

textsandthenaturalworld,orenvironment,itisdevelopedagainstthebackgroundofthe

thedevelopmentofglobalmovementofincreasinglysevereenvironmentalcrisisand

environmentalism.Anoverviewofthisnewlyemergingliterarycriticismwillbegiveninthischaptor.

1.1ABriefSurveyofEeocrificism

Ecocriticism--thestudyofliteraturefromenvironmentalperspective--originatedinAmericaandhason)yrecentlycometOrecognizeitself85adistinctcriticalenterprise.Thetermitselfdatesnofurtherthan1978,whenitWaScoinedbytheAmericanscholarWilliamRueekertinhistmay‘'LiteratureandEcology:AnExperimentinEcocriticism”.Sixyearsearlier,anotherAmericanscholarJosephMeekerusedthet∞ralleiterm“literaryeeology'’inhisTheComedy∥鲰nt岫f’&l商妇胁LiteraryEcolo移.(MazeJl7)

Asanewliterarycritical阳fsp。嘶",ecocrRicismdidnotseeitsflourishingdevelopmentnntilthe1990s.In1991,HaroldFromminitiatedandhostedtheacademicseminarwiththetheme“溉riticism:TheGreeningofLiteraryStudies’’intheconferenceheldbyMLA(Mod啪LanguageAssOCiation),thefirsttimethattheecocriticsformallyvoicedtheiropinionsOnsuchoccasions.1992sawtheestablishmentofASLE(AssociationfortheStudyofLiteratureandEnvironment),thefirstacademicresearchinstitutioninecocriticism,and,inthefollowingyear№flagshipperiodicalISLE(InterdisciplinaryStudiesinLiteratureandEnvironmtmt)cameout.TheseeventSsignifythatasaBOWcriticalenterpriseecocritieismisdrawingmofeandmoreatteMqtioctfromacademicfieldsandwillexertagreaterinfluenceintheyearstocome,

Afterthemid-1990ssomeimportantrese&"chmonographsonecocriticismwerepublishedinAmerica,thetwoimportantonesofwhichwereLawrenceBuell'sTheEnvironmenlal

Imagination:Thoreau,NatureWriting,andtheFormationofAmericanCulture(HarvardUniversityPress1995)andTheEcocriticismReader:LandmarksinLiteraryEcology(TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress1996)collaboratedbyCheryllGlotfeltyandHaroldFromm.TheresearchdevelopmentoneeoeritieisminEnglandcouldberepresentedbyJonathanBate’sTheSongoftheEarth(Picador2000)andLaurenceCoupe'sTheGreenStudiesReader."FromRomanticismtoEcocrMcism(Routledge2000).Inrecentyearsinterestsinecocriticismhavealsogreatlyincreasedinothercountries.AstheChineseliteraturehasagreattraditioninecologicalimplicationsaswell,someChinesescholarshavebeguntopayattentiontothisnewliterarytheoryandtakeitastheirresearchfocus,ThefirstmonographonEuro-AmericanecologicalliteratureinChinabyWangNunwaspublishedin2003byBeijingPressUniversity.

ThefounderofEcoeriticism,CheryllGlotfelty,defineseeoeriticismas‘'thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenliteratureandthephysicalenvironment”(11).Inmuchthesamewayfeministcriticismexaminaalengnageandliteraturefromagender-consciousperspective,andMarxistcriticismbrings蚰awmofmodesofproductionandeconomicclasstoits

readingoftexts。ecooriticismtak=蜘earth.centeredapproachtoliterarystudies.(Gloffelty11)LawrenceBuellsuccinctlydnfineseencriticism舔follows:“studyoftherelationbetweenliteratureandenvironmentoonductedinaspiritofcommitmenttoenvironmentalpraxis’’(430).Morebroadly,inthelightofHochman’Sdifferentiation,eeocriticism,orthemoreinclusiveterm‘greenstudies’,debalesnatureinordertodefendnature.(Coupe2)Ecoeritieismanalyzestherolethatthenaturalenvironmentplaysintheimaginationofaculturalcommunityataspecifichistoricalmoment,examininghowtheconceptofnatureisdefined,whatvaluesareassignedtoitordenieditandwhy,andthewayinwhichtherelationshipbetweenhumansandnatureisenvisioned.Morespecifically,itinvestigateshownatureisusedliterallyOrmetaphoricallyincertainliteraryoraestheticgenresandtropes,and

whatassumptionsaboutnatureunderliegenresthatmaynotaddressthis

topicdirectly.ThisanalysisinturnallowsecocriticismtoasSeSShowcertainhistoricallyconditionedconceptsofnatureandthenatural,andparticularlyliteraryandartisticconstnl_ctionsofit,havecometoshapecurrentperceptionsoftheenvironment.(Heise4)

lnthefirstphaseofthedevelopmentofecoeriticism,themainresearchsubiects

are

focuscd011thoseenvironmentallyorientedwork,Ofnaturewriting.Itanalyzeshownatureis

initandifthevaluesexpressedinrepresentedinthetext,whatrolethephysicalsettingplays

itareconsistentwithecologicalwisdom.Inrecentyears,withthedevelopmentinthepracticeandtheoryofecocriticism,theresearchsphereofecocridcismhasbeenfairlyexpandedSomeecoeriticsthinkthatanyconceivableliterarytextscanheapproachedwithecocriticismandthereisnotasingleliteraryworkanywherethatutterlydefiesecocriticalinterpretationbasedonthegroundthatanyliterarytextisconstitutedbynatureandculture,thehuman

definitiononecocriticismbyScottbeingsandenvironment.Andthusamoreencompassing

Sloviccameout:“thestudyofexplicitenvironmentaltextsbywayofanyscholarlyapproachor,conversel%thescrutinyofecologicalimplicationsandhuman—naturerelationshipsinanyliterarytext,eventextsthatseem,atfirstglance,obliviousofthenonhumanworld”(qtd.inCoupe】60).

Duetoitsbroadscopeofinquiryandvision,ecocriticismcannotbelimitedtoonesinglemethodology,butratherisrequiredt0beintegratedwithotherliterarytheoriesanddisciplines,Foriustance,whileinterpretingthetexts,eeoeritieismoftenappliestheclosereadingapproachofnewcriticism.Andtheinterconnectionsbetweellc虻ocriticismandfeminismareevenmoreobvious.Recently,somefeminists,assimilatingecooritieismintotheirowntheories,advancedanewmodeoffeminbm--tcofeminism,whichisdevelopingwithstrongmomentufll.11heyfindwomellandnaRl∞ashomogeneousinthesetlSethattheyarebothtreatedas‘'theother'’,theobject协beoppressedandexploited.inaddition。thereappear“ecopolitics”,“ecopoetics”and“ecmesthedcs”.allofwhich∞nbeseen昭evidencesthatthe214centuryisindeedtobeanecologioaera.

1.2TheoretieaiSourcesofEgeeritieism

Theinitiatjonanddevelopmentofecocrlticismiscloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofecology,inparticularwithenvironmentalethics,amongwhichLeopold'sLandEthicandNaess’DeepEcologyarethemostimportanttheoreticalsourcesofecocriticism.

1.2.1LandEthic

【twasAldoLeopold(1887-1948),theAmericanenvironmentalwriterandecological

theotherpredecessors’ecologicalthoughtsintophilosopher,whodevelopedThoreauand

environmentalethics.Leopold’Sessay,“TheLandEthic,”oneofthefinalselectionsinhisbook,ASandCountyAlmanac(1948),isconsideredbymanytobeamodernclassic.Init,Leopoldfirstclarifiedthenotionofhumanmoralresponsibilityforthenaturalenvironment.TheheartofthisethicCallbesummarizedinafew,often-quotedwords:“Athingisrightwhenittendstopreservetheintegrity,stability,andbeautyofthebioticcommunity.Itiswrongwhenittendsotherwise”fArmstrong&Botzler382).By“landethic”hemeanttosuggestanewwayofbehaviortowardthenaturalworldandhopedthathumanswouldlearnthatthenaturalworldisnotacommoditytheypossessbutratheracommunitytheyinhabit.Peoplehavedevelopedcodesofethicalbehavior协governtheirrelationshipswithothershthehumancommunityandtheyalsoshoulddothisindealingwiththeirrelationshipwithotherthingsintheecosphere.Leopoldsaid,

Thelandethicsimplyenlargestheboundariesofthecommunitytoincludesoils,

waters,plants,andanimals,orcollectively:theland.

Inshort.alandethicchangestheroleofHomosapiensfromconquerorofthe

land-communitytoplainmemberandcitizensofit.Itimpliesrespectforhis

fellow-members,andaisorespeotforthecommunity雒such.

(Armstro%&Botzler374)

LikeThoreau'sWalden,AldoLeopold'sASandCountyAleamacisavoiceofnaturespeakingbacktohumans.Leopoldderivesthecommunityconceptfromthehuman—naturerelationship.Humanstreattheenvironmentinsuch8waytosuitthemselvesthattheyhavedonemuchharmtotheeartht}Ieyliveon.

Leopolddescribesalandpyramidtoshowthedependencyoneachotherofdifferentspecies.Humansareatthetopofthepyramid.Abalancedrelationshipisachievedbetweenspecieswheneachlayeraboveanotherissmallerinthenumber,However,withthegrowthofhumanpopulationandtheirincreasingdemandsforresourl冶s,theecologicalbalanceofthepyramidisdamagedandreversed.Peopleareflourishingwhilelandisshrinkingandasaresultthenumberofspeciesinthelowerpartofthepyramidisdeclining.Leopoldstronglysuggeststhathumanbeingsshouldbepartoflandinsteadofbeingdisconnectedfromit

Whenhumansseparatethemselvesfromtheland,theyforgettheirmoral

obligationtotake

careofit、Hisideasarealandmarkintheformationofecocentrismand

oneoftheimportant

theoreticalSOUrCeSofecocriticism.

1.2.2DeepEcology

BasedontheecologicalideasofThoreau,Leopoldandtheotherpredecessors,theNorwegianphilosopherAmeNaess(1912?)putforthDeepEcologyin1973.Hefirstputforwardthisterminhisarticle“TheShallowandtheDeep,Long-RangeEcologyMovementsASummary”(1973).AccordingtoNaess,traditionalapproachestoconservationandenvironmentalprotectionmbasedonshallowecology1.whicharemerelysuperficialaRemptstocurethesymptomsofenvironmentaldisorderwithouttreatingtheunderlyingdisease.DeepEcology,ontheotherhand,callsforaprofoundchangeinthewayhumansviewtheirrelationshipwiththerestoftheworld.Insteadoftakingananthropocentric("human-centered’')view,deepecologistsseetheworldasbiocentrie(“life-centered”)orecocentric("ecosystem-centered”).(Stefoff101)

DeepEcologyattributesintrinsicandobjectivevaluetonatureandthethingsinnature,notsimplytohumans.Itseekstoliveinharmoflywithnature,ratherthanviewhumanityasdominantovernature.Itespousesecologicalegalitarianism,evaluatingallformsoflifeasequallyvaluable,withequalrightstoflourish.ThisisborrowedfromLeopold:“Allthingsinthebins;pherehaveanequalfighttoliveandblossomandtoreachtheirownindividualformsofunfoldingandSelf-realizationwithinthelargerSelf-realization”fDevall&Sessions67).InNaess’Sviewpoint,harmingnatureisharminghumansthemselvessincehumansarejustcitizensinthebioticcommunityinsteadofmastersoverallotherspecies,DeepEcologyurgeseveryonetoviewtheworldasallintermlatedoneandrespectallindividuals,humansandnonhumans.

Inadditiontotheemphasisontheintrinsicvalueofnatureandbioeentricquality,anotheremphasisofDeepEcologyisonhuman“Self-realization’’whichspringsoutof‘‘ecological

’Shallowecology'recognizesthatrcsoul'℃csarelimitedandwehave

obligationsIopasstheseresourcesontD

posterity.ItseeksfrugalitywithregardtOnonrenewableregoBrc2sandwisea.qewithregardtoscarcerenewable

resources-Itbelievesinthecapabilityofsciencetosolvetheenvironmental

problems.Shallowecologyrepresents

allenlightenedanthrupoceatrismthats∞kstOmanagenatureforthegoodofhumaaity.}niIsCOmCXtnaturehas

onlysubjective,extrinsicvalue.s∞P107inEnvironmentalEthics:DivergenceandConvergence

consciousness”(Mathews147).ForNaessself-realizationinvolvestheidentificationofthesmallhumanself--thepersonalego--witheverwiderwholes,uptothelevelofthecosmosasawhole.(Matbews148)InNaess’sopinion,ifoneextendsoneselftoincludealltheotherspeciesandeventhewholenature,theinterestofallwill

beone'sown.Self-realizationcouldnotbefulfilledwithouttherealizationofallinwhichtheindividualactsaspart.Theideaofself-realizationmakesthepreservationofnaturemoreacceptableandconvincingsincetheactionoflovingnaturebecomesoneoflovingoneself=Toreachforcompleteself-realization,realizationofallisrequired.Diversityofformsoflife,societies,andspecieshelpsthefuIfillmentofself-realization.

In1984.ArneNaessandhisfollowerGeorgeSessionssummarized8principlesofDeepEcology,hopingtoofferaplatformfordeepecologicalmovement.Theplatformconsistsofanumberofinter-relatedfactualandnormativeclaimsabouthumansandtheirrelationswiththerestofnature.Theplatformis够follows:

(1)Thewell—beingandflourishingofhumanandnonhumanlifeonEarthhavevalueinthemselves(synonymous:intrinsicvalue,inherentvalue).Thesevaluesare

independentof龇usefulnessofthenonhumanworldforhuman

purposes.

(2)Richnessanddiversityoflifeformscontributestotherealizationofthesevaluesandalsovaluesinthemselves.

(3)HumanshavenorighttOreducethisrichnessanddive体ityexcepttosatisfyvitalneeds.

“)Theflouringofhumanlifeandculturesiscompatiblewithasubstantialdecreaseofthehumanpopulation.Theflourishingofnonhumanlift=requiressuchadecrease.

(5)Presenthumaninterferencewiththenonhumanworldisexcessive,andthesituationisrapidlyworsening.

(6)Policiesmustthereforebechanged.Thesepoliciesaffectbasiceconomic,technological,andideologicalstructures.Theresultingstateofaffairswillbedeeplydifferentfromthepresent.

(7)Theideologicalchangeismainlythatofappreciatinglifequality(dwellinginsituationsofinherentvalue)ratherthanadheringtoanincreasinglyhigherstandardofliving.Therewillbeaprofoundawarenessofthedifferencebetweenbigandgreat.

(8)Thosewhosubscribetotheforgoingpointshaveanobligationdirectlyorindirectlytotrytoimplementthenecessarychanges.

(Devall&Sessions70)Indefiningtheterm‘‘life”,Naessincludesnon-livingthingssuchasrivers,mountains,

andland.“Inherentvalue’’refersto‘‘independentofanyconsciousnessorinterest”.Based

on

thesecondprinciple,Naessputforwardanotherterm“vitalneeds”,which

mainlyrefersto

lifeisnotdeterminedbywhatoreconstnTiessimplephysicalneeds.Hearguesthatqualityof

butbythedegreeOrefulfillsself-realization.NaesscallsOffashiftofthefocusfromstandardoflivingtoqualityoflife.Hewamsthatiforeownsmorethanheneeds,thethingswillpOSSeSShim.

Thesetheoriesofenvironmentalethicshaveprovidedimportantphilosophicalbasesforecocritic;sm.

1.3TheGoalsofEcOCriticism

Literarytheory,ingeneral,examinestherelationsb雠、M∞nwriters,texts,andtheworld.Inmostliterarytheories‘'theworld”issynonymouswithsociety~thesocialsphere.Ecocriticismexpandsthenotionof“theworld'’toincludetheentireecosphere.Mostecocriticalworksshareacommonmotivation:thetroublingawarenessthatwehavereachedtheageofenvironmentallimits,atimewhentheconsequencesofhumanactionsare

crises玳growinginbothecosphereanddamagingtheplanet’Sbasiclifesupportsystemsand

spiritualsphere.HistorianDonaldWorsterarguesthathumanitiesscholarshaveanimportantroletoplayinaddressingthesecrises:

Wearefacingaglobalcrisistoday,notbecauseofhowecosystemsfunctionbut

ratherbecauseofhowourethicalsystemsfunction.Gettingthroughthecrisis

requiresunderstandingourimpactonnatureaspreciselyaspossible,butevenmore,

itrequiresunderstandingthoseethicalsystemsandusingthatunderstandingto

reformthem.Historians,alongwithliterary∞bolats,anthropologists,and

philosophers,cannotdothereforming.ofP.,OI/gSe,buttheycanhelpwiththe

understanding.(27)

Anecologicallyfocusedcriticismisexactlysuchacriticalstanceseekingtohelpwiththisunderstandingandreforming.ItdirectsOUt"attentiontomattersaboutwhichWeneedtobere-thinking.Ecocriticsencourageotherstothinkseriouslyabouttherelationshipbetweenhumansandnature,abouttheethicalandaestheticdilemmasposedbytheenvironmentalcrisis,andabouthowlanguageandliteraturetransmitvalueswithprofoundecologicalimplications.The1998collectionentitledReadingtheEarthisspecificinthematterofethicalcommitmentofecocriticism.AsMichaelPBranchetalexplain,

Implicit(andoflenexplicit)inmuchofthisnewcriticismisacallforcultural

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change.Ecocriticismisnotjustameansofanalyzingnatureinliterature;itimpliesa

movetowardamorebioeentricworldview,anextensionofethics,abroadeningof

humans’conceptionofglobalcommunitytoincludenonhumanlifeformsandthe

physicalenvironment.JustasfeministandAfricanAmericanliterarycriticismcall

forachangeinculture--thatis,theyattempttomovetheculturetowardabroader

worldviewbyexposinganearliernarrownessofview--sotoodoesecological

literarycriticismadvocateforculturalchangebyexamininghowthenarrownessof

ourculture’SassumptionsaboutthenaturalworldhaslimitedourabilityGoenvision

anecologicallysustainablehumansociety.(Xiii)

Byre?imagingthoseliteraryclassics,ecocriticismattemptstoachieveathorou曲transformationinhumanworldview,andconstructamore“ecological’’or“ecocentric’’wayofbeingthatischaracterizedbytheharmonybetweenmanandnature.Inelarifyingwhatismeantby"ecocentrism,’’LawrenceBuellsaid:“Eeoeentrismpreachesthevirtuesofreverence,humility,responsibilityandcare;itarguesforlowimpacttechnology.(butisnotantiteehnological);itdecriesbignessandimpersonalityinallforms(butespeciallyinthecity);anddemandsacodeofbehaviorthatseekspermanenceandstabilitybaseduponecologicalprincipleofdiversityandhomeostasis”(Branch&Slovic425).

Eeoeritieismisstillayoungliterarytheoryandhasalotofgrowingyettodointhefuture.Itsstrongmomentumhasbeenevidencedbytheboomingdevelopmentintheresearchandpracticeofthisenterprise.Andtowhatdegreeitcanfulfillitsgoalsandcontributetotheconstractionofanecok喀icalworldwillbedecidedbyitsfurthermaturity.

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IIWritingBackgroundofWalden

Whenlwrotethefollowingpages,orratherthebulkofthem,1livedalone,

inthewoods,amilefromanyneighbor,inahousewhichIhadbuiltmyself:

ontheshoreofWaldenPond,inConcord,Massachusetts,andearnedmy

livingbythelaborofmyhandsonly.1livedtheretwoyearsandtwO

months.(Walden18)

Withthesewords,HenryDavidThoreaubeganthetaleofhisexperimentofsimplelivingatWaldenPond.InWalden,Thoreauoutlinedhisphilosophyoflife,politics,andnature.

1ayingthefoundationforasecureplaceinthecanonofgreatAmericanwriters.Although

WaldenenjoyedonlymoderateSBcceSSinThoreau‘Slifetime,hisexperimentinthewildernesswouldsparkconsiderableinterestintheyearstocome.Thebookhasinspiredotheryoungpeopletofollowhisexampleandretiretoalonelyspot--evenifonlyinimagination--topondertheworldandtheirplaceinit.Thoreau'swordsexpressedtheconcernsofmanyofhiscontemporariesasindustrializationpermanentlyalteredtheworldaroundthem.Beforeapproachingthisgreatbook,Ithinkithelpfulandsignificanttotakeintoconsiderationthe

Thoreau'stimeinwhichWaldenwashistorical,geographicalandsocialbackgroundof

produced.

2.1Thoreau:TheSonofNatu糟

ThoreauwasborninConcord,Massachusetts,onJuly12,1817.HislifetimeiscloselyconnectedwithConcord.Heoncewrote:‘‘IWaSborninthemostfavoredspotonearth--andjustinthenickoftime,too.’"(Krutch3)ThoreauhaseveryreasontorefertoConcordas“themostfavoredspotonearth”.ThetownofConcord,Massachuse'as,wasnotonlythecradleofAmericanindependence,butalsothespiritualandactualhomeofAmericanTranscendentalists.Throughoutthe19“centuryConcordexertedaformidableinfluenceonAmericanculturallifeduetotheextraordinaryconfluenceofAmericanliteratiandartistswho

tookupresidence

there.AmongthemwereRalphWaldoEmerson,HenryDavidThoreau,

NathanielHawthorne,BronsonAlcottandWilliamEllery

ChanningtheYounger.Becauseof

Emerson’Spresencethere,ConcordWaSa

significantintellectualandculturalcenterin

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associatedwith.Ihoreau,stime.CoJ1cordwasaclassiclandbecauseofSOmanygreatnames

hasthefieldsandforestsandlakesandriversofhistownship.However,itisThoreauwho

madeConcordaholylandthatpermanentlycapturespeople’simagination.Otherwriters

ofit.AsEmersonsaidin"Thoreau’’:"ThoreaudedicatedmightbeinConcord;Thoreauwas

hisgeniuswithsuchentirelovetothefields,hiIts,andwatersofhisnativetown,thathemadeitknownandinterestingtoallreadingAmericans,andtopeopleoverthesea’’(Myerson112).

Thissmallnineteenth-centuryNewEnglandtowrtwithitsruralsceneryprovidedanaturalsurroundingforayoungmanlikeThoreauwhodreamedofalifeofthespiritandsolitude.ThoreauhadspentallhislifeinoraearConcord,withonlyafewshontripstoMaineorCapeCod,andonelongerjoumeytoCanada.Concordw∞hisonlyhome;it

ofhiseducationandmostofliterarysubjects-Thoreauwasaprovidedhimwithmuch

outdoorsmanfromchildhoodandkneweveryinchofthebeautifullandscapeofthepassionate

town.AsLeonBazalgeaedescribes:He‘'willsOonbesixyea糟old……AllConcordisspreadoutonhislap,likeagreatbookfellofpicturesandsongs”(13)

AsaboyThoreauwalkedonthesunnymeadows,swanlintheclearriversandponds,

andfields,andplayedgamesinthequietwoods.Allthesepickedhuckleberriesinthehills

gavehimasenseofprofoundpleasureinnaturewithwhichhecouldneverkeepaway.He

WasfamiliarwitheverysightinConcord.Hesawthingsprecisely,identifiedtreesandflowersandgrasses,notedwheneachbirdreturnedinspring,andmeasuredriverlevels,treerings,seedlingroots.InThoreau’Seyes,Concordwasthecosmoswherehecouldeslabiishhiscommunionwithnature.Inthe‘‘Spring”chapterofWalden,Thoreaudescribedahawk,alternatelysoaringandtumblinghighintheairovertheConcordRiver.“Itwasnotlonely,butmadealltheearthlonelybeneathit.”Placeisnotwhatmatters;caringaboutaplaceiswhatmatters.ConcordWassufficientforThoreau.Hisworksprovethatanydirectpersonal

secondhandexperience,noexperience,nomatterhowhumbleorlocal,ispreferabletoany

matterhowgrand.ThisisalsotheteachingofEmerson's“Self-Reliance,…‘Dowhatyoulove,”hewrote:“knowyourownbone;gnawit,buryit,unearthitandgnawitstill.”(Emerson336)Thoreaudidwhatheloved,andheknewwhatheloved.“ThesighteramarshhawkinConcordmeadows,”hewrote,“iswoahinoretomethantheentryofthealliesinlo

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