对亨利·梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的生态解读
对外经济贸易大学
硕士学位论文
对亨利·梭罗《瓦尔登湖》的生态解读
姓名:童慧雁
申请学位级别:硕士
专业:英语
指导教师:蒋显璟
20050401
摘要
亨利?大卫?梭罗(HenryDavidThoreau,1817.1862)是十九世纪美国超验士义哲学家、
文学家、当代环境主义运动的先驱。在十九世纪中叶的美国超验主义者中.他的名字儿乎是自然的同义词,田二l:『他将一生奉献给了自然,写下了大量反恩人与自然关系的文学作品。他的作品《瓦尔登湖》、《在康科德河和梅里马克河上一周》和‘缅因森林》等都充满了对门然景物细致入微的描写,闪烁着早期生态哲学思想的光芒。
/一
j梭罗在世时并没有受到同代人的认可。随着二十世纪r半叶全球性环境运动的兴起,梭罗被重新发现,其作品成为文学评论家们研究的热点。他的代表作<瓦尔登湖》更是田其优美的文字和深刻的思想内涵吸引着众多读者。‘瓦尔登湖》多次在<美国遗产》客志评选的t?十本构成美国人性格的书”中位居榜首,被称为美国文学史上的?t绿色圣经”jfc舞。““
,本文试图通过对‘瓦尔登湖》的文本分析,从生态批评的角度对之进行解读,挖掘其中蕴舍的生态思想.探索梭罗在(瓦尔登湖》中给我们的启示.思考我们当代面临的问题:自
然与人、自然与文明该保持什么样的关系才有利于整个地球生态圈的良性发展?人应该怎样
生活?什么样的生活是灵性,智慧的生活?
本文共分四个部分。第一部分简述生态文学批评的发展辣络、研究内容、目的及其主要
理论来源。生态文学批评是二十世纪后期随着生态哲学和环境主义运动的蓬勃发震而出现的
一种新的文学理论。其研究的主要内容是自然、自然与人、自然与文化的关系等在文学作品
中的表达和体现,目的是通过对文学作品的生态解读唳醒人们的生态意识。其主要理论来源
是利舆波德的大地伦理学和奈斯的深屡生态学思想。
第二部分主要探讨《瓦尔登湖》的写作背景。十九世纪中划,美国l:业化快速发展。f
业文明带来经济繁荣的同时.也给自然环境造成严重破坏:物质主义的泛潞给人f『J带米精神
危机。不和现实妥协的梭罗走向瓦尔登湖.走向自然.开始自己的精神探索和生活实践。
第三部分是全文的核心。这部分通过对《瓦尔登湖》的文本分析,探讨作品中的生态意蕴。梭罗在《瓦尔登潮》中表达了深刻的生态思想。弛认为人类是自然的一部分.自然有其
存住的内在价值,人和自然的关系应由“哉一你”对立转变为“部分一锻体”的融合才f『利1’糕个生态系统的繁荣和发展:在‘瓦自{登湖》中,棱罗质疑人类对白然的统治权力,谴责
人类对环境的镀坏;他认为与自然融台是自我实现、自我完善的途径:他追求外在简朴、内
l
征丰富和多样的生活方式.认为精神的圆满米Lh丁灵性生活和诗意生存。梭罗的这些思想为当代生态哲学奠定了重要基础。
第四部分着重讨论了《瓦尔登湖》的影响及其现实意义。梭罗谶称为自然文学之父,《瓦尔登湖》在自然文学史上有着里程碑式的意义,它以深刻的精神内涵影响着一代义一代生态文学作家。对于同样面l临生态危机和精神危机的现代人,研读《瓦尔登湖》具有深刻的现实意义。
关键词:自然:生态;人和、洙的关系;¨,棒复zfR卢尽鉴矗8))
II
Abstract
HenryDavidThoreau(ISl7-1s62)isthe19t“centuryAmericantranscendentalist,writerandthepioneerofmodernenvironmentalism.Hisnameisalmostsynonymouswithnaturebecausehehasdevotedhisentirelifeintoobservingandstudyingnatureandwrittenmanyliteraryworksrecordinghisideasonman—naturerelationship.HisworkssuchasWalden.AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRiversandMaineWoodsarefamousfortheirdetaileddescriptionofnatureandprofoundecologicalthoughts.
Inhisowntime.ThoreauwasdismissedasaminorwriterfollowinghismentorRalphWaldoEmerson.Withthedevelopmentofenvironmentalismiathelate20“century,Thoreauwasrediscoveredandhisworkshavebecomethefocalresearchofmanyliterarycritics.HismasterpieceWaldenappealstomoreandmorereadersforitsbeautifulwritingstyleanddeepspiritualconnotations.WaldenhasmorethanoncebeenratedasnumberOneinthetengreatestbooksthathavecontributedtoshapingtheAmericanmindbythemagazineAmericanHeritage.
Thisthesisintendstogive卸ecocrnIcaIstudyofWaldenthroughreadingthetextfromtheperspectiveofceocriticism,probingtheprofoundecologicalimplicationsreflectedinthiswork.Andthisstudyisofgreathelpinleadingustothinkingaboutthefollowingquestions:whatkindofman?naturerelationshipshallweestablishthatwillbenefitthedevelopmentofthewholeeeosphere?Andwhatkindoflifeshouldwelive?
Thisthesisconsistsoffourparts.Inthefirstpart1intendtogiveanoverviewofecocriticismconcerningitsdeveloFrnent,researchfocusesandpurposeaswellasitstheoreticalsources.Ecocritieismisanewlyemergingliteraryperspectivewithnature,mall—naturerelationshipandnature-culturerelationshipreflectedinliteraryworksasitsmainresearchfocuses.Thepurposeofecoeriticismistopromotetheecologicalawarenessofpeoplethroughanalyzingnatureinliterature.ThemaintheoreticalsourcesofeeocriticismareLeopold’SLandEthicandNaess’DeepEcology.
ParttwomainlydiscussesSomeimportantfactors,suchasthe
geographicalandculturalcontexts,whichplayedanimportantroleintheformationofThoreau’SWalden.Thoreatl‘s
111
timesawtheconflictsbetweentheindustrialcivilizationandtheArcadianlifestyledreamedbytheidealistictranscendentalists.Facedwiththeenvironmentalandspiritualcrisesbroughtaboutbyindustrialization,ThoreauwenttoWaldenPondtopursuehisindependentexplorationinnature.Itwasduringtheovertwoyears’intimatecommunionwithnaturethatThoreaucreatedhismasterpieceWalden,
ThethirdpartseekstoanalyzetheecologicalimplicationscontainedinWaldenthroughclosetextreading.Thoreau'sconceptofnatul℃andhisviewsonEqao—naturerelationshipcoincidewithmodernecologicalphilosophysuchasLandEthicandDeepEcologyThisiswhyThoreauisoftenconsideredasall‘'ecologist”beforeecologyappeared.Thoreauthinksthatnaturehasitsintrinsicvalueandmanisapartandparcelofnature;goingtonatureisawayofachievingSelf-realization.Heemphasizestheshiftofman’srelationshipwithnaturefrom“I—Thou”to“Part--Whole”,ThevoluntarysimplicityanddiversityoflifeisthewaytowardsawiserandsailerIife.
Inthefourthchapter,IintendtodealwiththelegacyleftbyWaldenanditsrealisticsignificances.WaldenisaclassichavinglandmarksignificaneesinthehistoryofAmericannaturewriting.Ithasmuchinfluenceoilnaturewritingsinthefollowingages.Fornsmodempeople,therealisticsignificaacesofstudyingWaldenarcthatithelpsawakepeople’secologicalawarenb-ssandpromoteamoreecologicallifestylethatharmonizeswiththeenvironment
KeyWords:nature,ecology,man—naturerelationship
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Introduction
AsThoreau’smentorandfriend,RalphWaldoEmerson(I803一l882)describedThoreau
inhisaddressatThoreau’sfunerallikethis:
TheCOUnt/yknowsnotyet,orintheleastpart,howgreatasonithaslost.Itseemsaninjurythatheshouldleaveinthemidsthisbrokentaskwhichnoneelsecanfinish,akindofindignitytosonobleasoulthatheshoulddepartoutofNaturebeforeyethehasreallyshowntohispeersforwhatheis.Buthe,atleast,iscontent.Hissoulwasmadeforthenoblestsociety;hehadinashortlifeexhaustedthecapabilitiesofthisworld,whereverthereisknowledge,whereverthereisvirtue,whereverthereisbeauty,hewillfindahome.(Emerson502)
AlthoughEmerson’sopinionsexpressedinhiseulogytoThoreauarepartial,this
forthenoblestparagraphindeedgeneralizedtheCOreofThoreau’sspirit:anoblesouImade
societywhohasdevotedallhislifetonature.
BorninConcordandalmosthavingspentallhislifethere,HenryDavidThoreau
r1917-1862)madenumeroustravelstothenaturearounditandleftusabundantrecordsinhisjournals.Hecelebratednature'swildnessandtookitashislifecareertoarriveatadeepunderstandingofnature.OnJuly41845,hebe擘mthelivingexperimentatWaldenPond.Duringhistwo-year-two?monthstayatWalden,heproducedthreeworks,whichwerethemostinfluential,andtwoofthemwereconsideredashismasterpieces.ThefirstoneisAWeek
theConcordandMerrimackRivers(1849);thesecondisCivilDbobedience.whichon
derivedfromhisexperienceofbeingarrestedforrefusingtopaythetolltaxtoagovernment
thatThoreauthoughtunjustandgreedy;andthethirdoneisWalden--thetIghnotfinished,thematerialshadbeengathered.
Inhisowntime,withthegrowingfameofsuchwritersasHawthorne,Melville,Emerson
andWhitman,ThoreaudidnotmakehisnamewellknownandhewasgenerallydismissedasaminorwriterundertheshadowofEmerson.YetThoreaudidnotceasetopursuehisowrlwayforbeingneglectedbyothers.HeearnestlykeptonhisexplorationinnatureandwrotedownwhatheobservedandthorIghtofinnaturewhileatthesametimeheputthemintopractice.
AshesaidinWalden:
Tobeaphilosopherisnotmerelytohavesubtlethought,noreventofoundaschool,butSOtOlovewisdomastoliveaccordingtoitsdictates,alifeofsimplicity,independence,magnanimity,andtrnst,Itistosolvesomeoftheproblemsoflife,notonlytheoretically,butalsopractically.(Walden116)
Thoreauissucharealphilosopherwholiveshisprinciples.Beginninginthel930s,interestinThoreaubegantorisemarkedly.HenrySeidelCanby。SI939biography,Thoreau,reachedthebest—sellerlists,InJuly1941,theThoreauSocietyofAmericawasfoundedatameetinginConcord.Stillactivetoday,theThoreauSociety’Spurposeis‘‘tohonorHenryDavidThoreau,bystimulatinginterestinandfosteringeducationabouthislife,works,andphilosophyandhisplaceinhisworldandours,bycoordinatingresearchonhislifeandwritings,andbyactingasarepositoryforThoreauvianaandmaterialrelevanttoHenryDavidThoreau,andbyadvocatingforthepreservationofThoreauCountry.”(Harding&Meyer7)
SixeditionsofWaldenwerepublishedin1948,elevenin1958,andtwenty-threein1968,alongwithmanyeditionsofhisotherworks,In1966,aprojecttoeditandpublishallofThoreau。SwritingswasundertakenbyagroupofscholarsunderthesponsorshipoftheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities.UndertheeditorshipofWalterHarding,WilliamL.Howarth,andElizabethWithemll,theproject。TheWritingsojHenryD.Thoreau,haspublishedfourteenofitsprojectedthirty-volumeserieswithPrincetonUniversityPress.ThePrincetonEditionofWaldenwaspublishedin1971.
Withthedevelopmentofmodernenvironmentalism,Thoreau’Sphilosophyandhisworksincreasinglyappealtomodernpeople.Hisreputationexperiencedagreatriseinthelate20thcentury.Thoreauisnowmorewidelyreadandresearchedthananyothertranscendentalists,includingEmerson.His‘'CivilDisobedience’’hasprovidedanimportanttoolformodernenvironmentalismandheevenbecameapatronsaintfortheenvironmentalmovement.HislivingexperimentatWaldenhasbecomeamythinpeople’SimaginationandtheworkWalden
recordinghisthoughtonman—naturerelationshipisconsideredasoneofthegreatestclassicsinecologicalliterature.
Asaclassicinnaturewriting,Waldenhasbecomethefocalresearchofmanyecocrilics
InWalden,ThoreautakesthesmallpondWaldenasthemicrocosmofnaturewherehe
can
communewithallthelivingthingsandseektoestablishaharmonious
relationshipwith
2
viewsonman.naturerelationshipthatanticipateecologicalnaturc.Heexpresseshis
isaheadofhistimeinthatwhatheadvocatedinthe19thcenturyisphilosophy.Thoreau
inthe13extcenturyandthereforeheissometimesca(1edanpropheticofwhatwillhappen
。‘ecologicalprophet”.
When1readWaldenforthefirsttimeduringmyundergraduatestudy,1wasdeeply
thebeginningoftouchedbytherhetoricalprowessThoreaudeployedinhisbook.Thatwas
WaldenandtheauthorThoreau.AfterhavingreadsomebooksonWalden,mydeepinterestin
Icometoknowthatitismorethananartisticmasterpiece.Itisasmultifacetedasawholeiewelcaseofdiamonds.And矗sanaturebook,itcontainsprofoundecologicalimplications,
ofeverythinginnature,ThoreauisoneoftheSeekingfortheharmonyandintegrity
forerunnersofwesternecologicalphilosophies.Hisdeepecologicalconsciousnessandhismodeoflifemightshedlightonwhathumansshoulddowiththerelationshipbetweenthemselvesandnatureandtheconnectionbetweencivilizationandtheenvironment.Aswe
facedwiththeconflictsbctrweenenvironmentanddevelopmentbroughtaboutbyare
modernization,itisofgreatsignificancetoprobetheecologicalimplicationsinthisbook-Inthisthesis1intendtostudyWaldenusing。cocriticismandtoprovethatmuchofThoreau’S
Waldenareconsistentwiththeconceptofnatureandphilosophyoflifereflectedin
EthicandDeepunderlyingprinciplesofmodemecologicalphilosophy,especiallyLand
theoreticalsourcesofecoeriticism.
Ecologywhichareimportant
3
1.AnOverviewofEcocriticism
Ecocriticismisoneofthemostrecentinterdisciplinaryfieldsthathaveemergedin
stillliteraryandculturalstudies.Itbeganinthe1970s'burgeonedinthelate1990sandis
betweentheliteraryexperiencingitsboomingdevelopmentatpresent.Stressingthelinkage
textsandthenaturalworld,orenvironment,itisdevelopedagainstthebackgroundofthe
thedevelopmentofglobalmovementofincreasinglysevereenvironmentalcrisisand
environmentalism.Anoverviewofthisnewlyemergingliterarycriticismwillbegiveninthischaptor.
1.1ABriefSurveyofEeocrificism
Ecocriticism--thestudyofliteraturefromenvironmentalperspective--originatedinAmericaandhason)yrecentlycometOrecognizeitself85adistinctcriticalenterprise.Thetermitselfdatesnofurtherthan1978,whenitWaScoinedbytheAmericanscholarWilliamRueekertinhistmay‘'LiteratureandEcology:AnExperimentinEcocriticism”.Sixyearsearlier,anotherAmericanscholarJosephMeekerusedthet∞ralleiterm“literaryeeology'’inhisTheComedy∥鲰nt岫f’&l商妇胁LiteraryEcolo移.(MazeJl7)
Asanewliterarycritical阳fsp。嘶",ecocrRicismdidnotseeitsflourishingdevelopmentnntilthe1990s.In1991,HaroldFromminitiatedandhostedtheacademicseminarwiththetheme“溉riticism:TheGreeningofLiteraryStudies’’intheconferenceheldbyMLA(Mod啪LanguageAssOCiation),thefirsttimethattheecocriticsformallyvoicedtheiropinionsOnsuchoccasions.1992sawtheestablishmentofASLE(AssociationfortheStudyofLiteratureandEnvironment),thefirstacademicresearchinstitutioninecocriticism,and,inthefollowingyear№flagshipperiodicalISLE(InterdisciplinaryStudiesinLiteratureandEnvironmtmt)cameout.TheseeventSsignifythatasaBOWcriticalenterpriseecocritieismisdrawingmofeandmoreatteMqtioctfromacademicfieldsandwillexertagreaterinfluenceintheyearstocome,
Afterthemid-1990ssomeimportantrese&"chmonographsonecocriticismwerepublishedinAmerica,thetwoimportantonesofwhichwereLawrenceBuell'sTheEnvironmenlal
Imagination:Thoreau,NatureWriting,andtheFormationofAmericanCulture(HarvardUniversityPress1995)andTheEcocriticismReader:LandmarksinLiteraryEcology(TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress1996)collaboratedbyCheryllGlotfeltyandHaroldFromm.TheresearchdevelopmentoneeoeritieisminEnglandcouldberepresentedbyJonathanBate’sTheSongoftheEarth(Picador2000)andLaurenceCoupe'sTheGreenStudiesReader."FromRomanticismtoEcocrMcism(Routledge2000).Inrecentyearsinterestsinecocriticismhavealsogreatlyincreasedinothercountries.AstheChineseliteraturehasagreattraditioninecologicalimplicationsaswell,someChinesescholarshavebeguntopayattentiontothisnewliterarytheoryandtakeitastheirresearchfocus,ThefirstmonographonEuro-AmericanecologicalliteratureinChinabyWangNunwaspublishedin2003byBeijingPressUniversity.
ThefounderofEcoeriticism,CheryllGlotfelty,defineseeoeriticismas‘'thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenliteratureandthephysicalenvironment”(11).Inmuchthesamewayfeministcriticismexaminaalengnageandliteraturefromagender-consciousperspective,andMarxistcriticismbrings蚰awmofmodesofproductionandeconomicclasstoits
readingoftexts。ecooriticismtak=蜘earth.centeredapproachtoliterarystudies.(Gloffelty11)LawrenceBuellsuccinctlydnfineseencriticism舔follows:“studyoftherelationbetweenliteratureandenvironmentoonductedinaspiritofcommitmenttoenvironmentalpraxis’’(430).Morebroadly,inthelightofHochman’Sdifferentiation,eeocriticism,orthemoreinclusiveterm‘greenstudies’,debalesnatureinordertodefendnature.(Coupe2)Ecoeritieismanalyzestherolethatthenaturalenvironmentplaysintheimaginationofaculturalcommunityataspecifichistoricalmoment,examininghowtheconceptofnatureisdefined,whatvaluesareassignedtoitordenieditandwhy,andthewayinwhichtherelationshipbetweenhumansandnatureisenvisioned.Morespecifically,itinvestigateshownatureisusedliterallyOrmetaphoricallyincertainliteraryoraestheticgenresandtropes,and
whatassumptionsaboutnatureunderliegenresthatmaynotaddressthis
topicdirectly.ThisanalysisinturnallowsecocriticismtoasSeSShowcertainhistoricallyconditionedconceptsofnatureandthenatural,andparticularlyliteraryandartisticconstnl_ctionsofit,havecometoshapecurrentperceptionsoftheenvironment.(Heise4)
lnthefirstphaseofthedevelopmentofecoeriticism,themainresearchsubiects
are
3
focuscd011thoseenvironmentallyorientedwork,Ofnaturewriting.Itanalyzeshownatureis
initandifthevaluesexpressedinrepresentedinthetext,whatrolethephysicalsettingplays
itareconsistentwithecologicalwisdom.Inrecentyears,withthedevelopmentinthepracticeandtheoryofecocriticism,theresearchsphereofecocridcismhasbeenfairlyexpandedSomeecoeriticsthinkthatanyconceivableliterarytextscanheapproachedwithecocriticismandthereisnotasingleliteraryworkanywherethatutterlydefiesecocriticalinterpretationbasedonthegroundthatanyliterarytextisconstitutedbynatureandculture,thehuman
definitiononecocriticismbyScottbeingsandenvironment.Andthusamoreencompassing
Sloviccameout:“thestudyofexplicitenvironmentaltextsbywayofanyscholarlyapproachor,conversel%thescrutinyofecologicalimplicationsandhuman—naturerelationshipsinanyliterarytext,eventextsthatseem,atfirstglance,obliviousofthenonhumanworld”(qtd.inCoupe】60).
Duetoitsbroadscopeofinquiryandvision,ecocriticismcannotbelimitedtoonesinglemethodology,butratherisrequiredt0beintegratedwithotherliterarytheoriesanddisciplines,Foriustance,whileinterpretingthetexts,eeoeritieismoftenappliestheclosereadingapproachofnewcriticism.Andtheinterconnectionsbetweellc虻ocriticismandfeminismareevenmoreobvious.Recently,somefeminists,assimilatingecooritieismintotheirowntheories,advancedanewmodeoffeminbm--tcofeminism,whichisdevelopingwithstrongmomentufll.11heyfindwomellandnaRl∞ashomogeneousinthesetlSethattheyarebothtreatedas‘'theother'’,theobject协beoppressedandexploited.inaddition。thereappear“ecopolitics”,“ecopoetics”and“ecmesthedcs”.allofwhich∞nbeseen昭evidencesthatthe214centuryisindeedtobeanecologioaera.
1.2TheoretieaiSourcesofEgeeritieism
Theinitiatjonanddevelopmentofecocrlticismiscloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofecology,inparticularwithenvironmentalethics,amongwhichLeopold'sLandEthicandNaess’DeepEcologyarethemostimportanttheoreticalsourcesofecocriticism.
1.2.1LandEthic
【twasAldoLeopold(1887-1948),theAmericanenvironmentalwriterandecological
6
theotherpredecessors’ecologicalthoughtsintophilosopher,whodevelopedThoreauand
environmentalethics.Leopold’Sessay,“TheLandEthic,”oneofthefinalselectionsinhisbook,ASandCountyAlmanac(1948),isconsideredbymanytobeamodernclassic.Init,Leopoldfirstclarifiedthenotionofhumanmoralresponsibilityforthenaturalenvironment.TheheartofthisethicCallbesummarizedinafew,often-quotedwords:“Athingisrightwhenittendstopreservetheintegrity,stability,andbeautyofthebioticcommunity.Itiswrongwhenittendsotherwise”fArmstrong&Botzler382).By“landethic”hemeanttosuggestanewwayofbehaviortowardthenaturalworldandhopedthathumanswouldlearnthatthenaturalworldisnotacommoditytheypossessbutratheracommunitytheyinhabit.Peoplehavedevelopedcodesofethicalbehavior协governtheirrelationshipswithothershthehumancommunityandtheyalsoshoulddothisindealingwiththeirrelationshipwithotherthingsintheecosphere.Leopoldsaid,
Thelandethicsimplyenlargestheboundariesofthecommunitytoincludesoils,
waters,plants,andanimals,orcollectively:theland.
Inshort.alandethicchangestheroleofHomosapiensfromconquerorofthe
land-communitytoplainmemberandcitizensofit.Itimpliesrespectforhis
fellow-members,andaisorespeotforthecommunity雒such.
(Armstro%&Botzler374)
LikeThoreau'sWalden,AldoLeopold'sASandCountyAleamacisavoiceofnaturespeakingbacktohumans.Leopoldderivesthecommunityconceptfromthehuman—naturerelationship.Humanstreattheenvironmentinsuch8waytosuitthemselvesthattheyhavedonemuchharmtotheeartht}Ieyliveon.
Leopolddescribesalandpyramidtoshowthedependencyoneachotherofdifferentspecies.Humansareatthetopofthepyramid.Abalancedrelationshipisachievedbetweenspecieswheneachlayeraboveanotherissmallerinthenumber,However,withthegrowthofhumanpopulationandtheirincreasingdemandsforresourl冶s,theecologicalbalanceofthepyramidisdamagedandreversed.Peopleareflourishingwhilelandisshrinkingandasaresultthenumberofspeciesinthelowerpartofthepyramidisdeclining.Leopoldstronglysuggeststhathumanbeingsshouldbepartoflandinsteadofbeingdisconnectedfromit
Whenhumansseparatethemselvesfromtheland,theyforgettheirmoral
obligationtotake
careofit、Hisideasarealandmarkintheformationofecocentrismand
oneoftheimportant
7
theoreticalSOUrCeSofecocriticism.
1.2.2DeepEcology
BasedontheecologicalideasofThoreau,Leopoldandtheotherpredecessors,theNorwegianphilosopherAmeNaess(1912?)putforthDeepEcologyin1973.Hefirstputforwardthisterminhisarticle“TheShallowandtheDeep,Long-RangeEcologyMovementsASummary”(1973).AccordingtoNaess,traditionalapproachestoconservationandenvironmentalprotectionmbasedonshallowecology1.whicharemerelysuperficialaRemptstocurethesymptomsofenvironmentaldisorderwithouttreatingtheunderlyingdisease.DeepEcology,ontheotherhand,callsforaprofoundchangeinthewayhumansviewtheirrelationshipwiththerestoftheworld.Insteadoftakingananthropocentric("human-centered’')view,deepecologistsseetheworldasbiocentrie(“life-centered”)orecocentric("ecosystem-centered”).(Stefoff101)
DeepEcologyattributesintrinsicandobjectivevaluetonatureandthethingsinnature,notsimplytohumans.Itseekstoliveinharmoflywithnature,ratherthanviewhumanityasdominantovernature.Itespousesecologicalegalitarianism,evaluatingallformsoflifeasequallyvaluable,withequalrightstoflourish.ThisisborrowedfromLeopold:“Allthingsinthebins;pherehaveanequalfighttoliveandblossomandtoreachtheirownindividualformsofunfoldingandSelf-realizationwithinthelargerSelf-realization”fDevall&Sessions67).InNaess’Sviewpoint,harmingnatureisharminghumansthemselvessincehumansarejustcitizensinthebioticcommunityinsteadofmastersoverallotherspecies,DeepEcologyurgeseveryonetoviewtheworldasallintermlatedoneandrespectallindividuals,humansandnonhumans.
Inadditiontotheemphasisontheintrinsicvalueofnatureandbioeentricquality,anotheremphasisofDeepEcologyisonhuman“Self-realization’’whichspringsoutof‘‘ecological
’Shallowecology'recognizesthatrcsoul'℃csarelimitedandwehave
obligationsIopasstheseresourcesontD
posterity.ItseeksfrugalitywithregardtOnonrenewableregoBrc2sandwisea.qewithregardtoscarcerenewable
resources-Itbelievesinthecapabilityofsciencetosolvetheenvironmental
problems.Shallowecologyrepresents
allenlightenedanthrupoceatrismthats∞kstOmanagenatureforthegoodofhumaaity.}niIsCOmCXtnaturehas
onlysubjective,extrinsicvalue.s∞P107inEnvironmentalEthics:DivergenceandConvergence
毫
consciousness”(Mathews147).ForNaessself-realizationinvolvestheidentificationofthesmallhumanself--thepersonalego--witheverwiderwholes,uptothelevelofthecosmosasawhole.(Matbews148)InNaess’sopinion,ifoneextendsoneselftoincludealltheotherspeciesandeventhewholenature,theinterestofallwill
beone'sown.Self-realizationcouldnotbefulfilledwithouttherealizationofallinwhichtheindividualactsaspart.Theideaofself-realizationmakesthepreservationofnaturemoreacceptableandconvincingsincetheactionoflovingnaturebecomesoneoflovingoneself=Toreachforcompleteself-realization,realizationofallisrequired.Diversityofformsoflife,societies,andspecieshelpsthefuIfillmentofself-realization.
In1984.ArneNaessandhisfollowerGeorgeSessionssummarized8principlesofDeepEcology,hopingtoofferaplatformfordeepecologicalmovement.Theplatformconsistsofanumberofinter-relatedfactualandnormativeclaimsabouthumansandtheirrelationswiththerestofnature.Theplatformis够follows:
(1)Thewell—beingandflourishingofhumanandnonhumanlifeonEarthhavevalueinthemselves(synonymous:intrinsicvalue,inherentvalue).Thesevaluesare
independentof龇usefulnessofthenonhumanworldforhuman
purposes.
(2)Richnessanddiversityoflifeformscontributestotherealizationofthesevaluesandalsovaluesinthemselves.
(3)HumanshavenorighttOreducethisrichnessanddive体ityexcepttosatisfyvitalneeds.
“)Theflouringofhumanlifeandculturesiscompatiblewithasubstantialdecreaseofthehumanpopulation.Theflourishingofnonhumanlift=requiressuchadecrease.
(5)Presenthumaninterferencewiththenonhumanworldisexcessive,andthesituationisrapidlyworsening.
(6)Policiesmustthereforebechanged.Thesepoliciesaffectbasiceconomic,technological,andideologicalstructures.Theresultingstateofaffairswillbedeeplydifferentfromthepresent.
(7)Theideologicalchangeismainlythatofappreciatinglifequality(dwellinginsituationsofinherentvalue)ratherthanadheringtoanincreasinglyhigherstandardofliving.Therewillbeaprofoundawarenessofthedifferencebetweenbigandgreat.
(8)Thosewhosubscribetotheforgoingpointshaveanobligationdirectlyorindirectlytotrytoimplementthenecessarychanges.
(Devall&Sessions70)Indefiningtheterm‘‘life”,Naessincludesnon-livingthingssuchasrivers,mountains,
andland.“Inherentvalue’’refersto‘‘independentofanyconsciousnessorinterest”.Based
on
thesecondprinciple,Naessputforwardanotherterm“vitalneeds”,which
mainlyrefersto
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lifeisnotdeterminedbywhatoreconstnTiessimplephysicalneeds.Hearguesthatqualityof
butbythedegreeOrefulfillsself-realization.NaesscallsOffashiftofthefocusfromstandardoflivingtoqualityoflife.Hewamsthatiforeownsmorethanheneeds,thethingswillpOSSeSShim.
Thesetheoriesofenvironmentalethicshaveprovidedimportantphilosophicalbasesforecocritic;sm.
1.3TheGoalsofEcOCriticism
Literarytheory,ingeneral,examinestherelationsb雠、M∞nwriters,texts,andtheworld.Inmostliterarytheories‘'theworld”issynonymouswithsociety~thesocialsphere.Ecocriticismexpandsthenotionof“theworld'’toincludetheentireecosphere.Mostecocriticalworksshareacommonmotivation:thetroublingawarenessthatwehavereachedtheageofenvironmentallimits,atimewhentheconsequencesofhumanactionsare
crises玳growinginbothecosphereanddamagingtheplanet’Sbasiclifesupportsystemsand
spiritualsphere.HistorianDonaldWorsterarguesthathumanitiesscholarshaveanimportantroletoplayinaddressingthesecrises:
Wearefacingaglobalcrisistoday,notbecauseofhowecosystemsfunctionbut
ratherbecauseofhowourethicalsystemsfunction.Gettingthroughthecrisis
requiresunderstandingourimpactonnatureaspreciselyaspossible,butevenmore,
itrequiresunderstandingthoseethicalsystemsandusingthatunderstandingto
reformthem.Historians,alongwithliterary∞bolats,anthropologists,and
philosophers,cannotdothereforming.ofP.,OI/gSe,buttheycanhelpwiththe
understanding.(27)
Anecologicallyfocusedcriticismisexactlysuchacriticalstanceseekingtohelpwiththisunderstandingandreforming.ItdirectsOUt"attentiontomattersaboutwhichWeneedtobere-thinking.Ecocriticsencourageotherstothinkseriouslyabouttherelationshipbetweenhumansandnature,abouttheethicalandaestheticdilemmasposedbytheenvironmentalcrisis,andabouthowlanguageandliteraturetransmitvalueswithprofoundecologicalimplications.The1998collectionentitledReadingtheEarthisspecificinthematterofethicalcommitmentofecocriticism.AsMichaelPBranchetalexplain,
Implicit(andoflenexplicit)inmuchofthisnewcriticismisacallforcultural
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change.Ecocriticismisnotjustameansofanalyzingnatureinliterature;itimpliesa
movetowardamorebioeentricworldview,anextensionofethics,abroadeningof
humans’conceptionofglobalcommunitytoincludenonhumanlifeformsandthe
physicalenvironment.JustasfeministandAfricanAmericanliterarycriticismcall
forachangeinculture--thatis,theyattempttomovetheculturetowardabroader
worldviewbyexposinganearliernarrownessofview--sotoodoesecological
literarycriticismadvocateforculturalchangebyexamininghowthenarrownessof
ourculture’SassumptionsaboutthenaturalworldhaslimitedourabilityGoenvision
anecologicallysustainablehumansociety.(Xiii)
Byre?imagingthoseliteraryclassics,ecocriticismattemptstoachieveathorou曲transformationinhumanworldview,andconstructamore“ecological’’or“ecocentric’’wayofbeingthatischaracterizedbytheharmonybetweenmanandnature.Inelarifyingwhatismeantby"ecocentrism,’’LawrenceBuellsaid:“Eeoeentrismpreachesthevirtuesofreverence,humility,responsibilityandcare;itarguesforlowimpacttechnology.(butisnotantiteehnological);itdecriesbignessandimpersonalityinallforms(butespeciallyinthecity);anddemandsacodeofbehaviorthatseekspermanenceandstabilitybaseduponecologicalprincipleofdiversityandhomeostasis”(Branch&Slovic425).
Eeoeritieismisstillayoungliterarytheoryandhasalotofgrowingyettodointhefuture.Itsstrongmomentumhasbeenevidencedbytheboomingdevelopmentintheresearchandpracticeofthisenterprise.Andtowhatdegreeitcanfulfillitsgoalsandcontributetotheconstractionofanecok喀icalworldwillbedecidedbyitsfurthermaturity.
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IIWritingBackgroundofWalden
Whenlwrotethefollowingpages,orratherthebulkofthem,1livedalone,
inthewoods,amilefromanyneighbor,inahousewhichIhadbuiltmyself:
ontheshoreofWaldenPond,inConcord,Massachusetts,andearnedmy
livingbythelaborofmyhandsonly.1livedtheretwoyearsandtwO
months.(Walden18)
Withthesewords,HenryDavidThoreaubeganthetaleofhisexperimentofsimplelivingatWaldenPond.InWalden,Thoreauoutlinedhisphilosophyoflife,politics,andnature.
1ayingthefoundationforasecureplaceinthecanonofgreatAmericanwriters.Although
WaldenenjoyedonlymoderateSBcceSSinThoreau‘Slifetime,hisexperimentinthewildernesswouldsparkconsiderableinterestintheyearstocome.Thebookhasinspiredotheryoungpeopletofollowhisexampleandretiretoalonelyspot--evenifonlyinimagination--topondertheworldandtheirplaceinit.Thoreau'swordsexpressedtheconcernsofmanyofhiscontemporariesasindustrializationpermanentlyalteredtheworldaroundthem.Beforeapproachingthisgreatbook,Ithinkithelpfulandsignificanttotakeintoconsiderationthe
Thoreau'stimeinwhichWaldenwashistorical,geographicalandsocialbackgroundof
produced.
2.1Thoreau:TheSonofNatu糟
ThoreauwasborninConcord,Massachusetts,onJuly12,1817.HislifetimeiscloselyconnectedwithConcord.Heoncewrote:‘‘IWaSborninthemostfavoredspotonearth--andjustinthenickoftime,too.’"(Krutch3)ThoreauhaseveryreasontorefertoConcordas“themostfavoredspotonearth”.ThetownofConcord,Massachuse'as,wasnotonlythecradleofAmericanindependence,butalsothespiritualandactualhomeofAmericanTranscendentalists.Throughoutthe19“centuryConcordexertedaformidableinfluenceonAmericanculturallifeduetotheextraordinaryconfluenceofAmericanliteratiandartistswho
tookupresidence
there.AmongthemwereRalphWaldoEmerson,HenryDavidThoreau,
NathanielHawthorne,BronsonAlcottandWilliamEllery
ChanningtheYounger.Becauseof
Emerson’Spresencethere,ConcordWaSa
significantintellectualandculturalcenterin
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associatedwith.Ihoreau,stime.CoJ1cordwasaclassiclandbecauseofSOmanygreatnames
hasthefieldsandforestsandlakesandriversofhistownship.However,itisThoreauwho
madeConcordaholylandthatpermanentlycapturespeople’simagination.Otherwriters
ofit.AsEmersonsaidin"Thoreau’’:"ThoreaudedicatedmightbeinConcord;Thoreauwas
hisgeniuswithsuchentirelovetothefields,hiIts,andwatersofhisnativetown,thathemadeitknownandinterestingtoallreadingAmericans,andtopeopleoverthesea’’(Myerson112).
Thissmallnineteenth-centuryNewEnglandtowrtwithitsruralsceneryprovidedanaturalsurroundingforayoungmanlikeThoreauwhodreamedofalifeofthespiritandsolitude.ThoreauhadspentallhislifeinoraearConcord,withonlyafewshontripstoMaineorCapeCod,andonelongerjoumeytoCanada.Concordw∞hisonlyhome;it
ofhiseducationandmostofliterarysubjects-Thoreauwasaprovidedhimwithmuch
outdoorsmanfromchildhoodandkneweveryinchofthebeautifullandscapeofthepassionate
town.AsLeonBazalgeaedescribes:He‘'willsOonbesixyea糟old……AllConcordisspreadoutonhislap,likeagreatbookfellofpicturesandsongs”(13)
AsaboyThoreauwalkedonthesunnymeadows,swanlintheclearriversandponds,
andfields,andplayedgamesinthequietwoods.Allthesepickedhuckleberriesinthehills
gavehimasenseofprofoundpleasureinnaturewithwhichhecouldneverkeepaway.He
WasfamiliarwitheverysightinConcord.Hesawthingsprecisely,identifiedtreesandflowersandgrasses,notedwheneachbirdreturnedinspring,andmeasuredriverlevels,treerings,seedlingroots.InThoreau’Seyes,Concordwasthecosmoswherehecouldeslabiishhiscommunionwithnature.Inthe‘‘Spring”chapterofWalden,Thoreaudescribedahawk,alternatelysoaringandtumblinghighintheairovertheConcordRiver.“Itwasnotlonely,butmadealltheearthlonelybeneathit.”Placeisnotwhatmatters;caringaboutaplaceiswhatmatters.ConcordWassufficientforThoreau.Hisworksprovethatanydirectpersonal
secondhandexperience,noexperience,nomatterhowhumbleorlocal,ispreferabletoany
matterhowgrand.ThisisalsotheteachingofEmerson's“Self-Reliance,…‘Dowhatyoulove,”hewrote:“knowyourownbone;gnawit,buryit,unearthitandgnawitstill.”(Emerson336)Thoreaudidwhatheloved,andheknewwhatheloved.“ThesighteramarshhawkinConcordmeadows,”hewrote,“iswoahinoretomethantheentryofthealliesinlo
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