语言学教程复习资料胡壮麟

第一章

1. What is Ian guage?

Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com mun icatio n

2. Desig n features of Ian guage

①Arbitrari ness（任意性）refers to the forms of lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning. （so unds and meanin gs）

②Duality （二层性）：The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary level and each of the two levels has its own prin ciples of orga ni zatio n.

③Productivity/creativity（仓U 造性）：Language is productive in that it makes possible the con struct ion and in terpretati on of new sig nals by its users.

④Displacement（移位性）:Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand con cepts which are not prese nt （i n time and space） at mome nt of com muni cati on. （p7）

3. Functions of Ian guage

①In formative（信息功能）:to give in formatio n about facts. （ideati on al）

②Interpersonal（人际功能）:to establish and maintain social status in a society.（age, sex, language, backgro und, acce nt, status）

③Performative（施为功能）:language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. （name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare）

④.Emotive/Expressive （情感功能）:to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

⑤Phatic communion（寒暄交流）:to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relati on ship or main ta in social con tact betwee n people without any factual content. （Health, weather）

⑥Recreational function（娱乐）:the use of Ianguage for sheer joy. （lyrics, poetry）

⑦Metalingual function（元语言功能）:to talk about Ianguage itself.

4. What is lin guistics?

Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.

5. Importa nt disti nctions in lin guistics

Descriptive & prescriptive

Syn chro nic & diachr onic

Lan gue & parole

Compete nee & performa nee

6. Descriptive（扌苗写/述性）—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the Ianguage people actually use （moder n lin guistic）

Prescriptive（规定性）—lay down rules for “ correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using Ian guage （traditi onal grammar: “n ever use a double n egative ”）

7.Synchronic study （共时）—description of a Ianguage at some point of time （modern linguistics）Diachronic study （历时）—description of a Ianguage as it changes through time （historical developme nt of Ian guage over a period of time）

1. What is Syntax （句法）？

Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different_constituents are combined to form sentences?句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则

2. Four Approaches :The traditional approach 传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category 范畴、Concord and government —致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach 功能语言观

3. The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequenee of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words , such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech , the iden tificati on of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.

4. Parts of speech

Traditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositi ons, conjunctions and in terject ions.

5. The term Category 范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defi ning properties of these gen eral un its:

the categories of the noun 名词的范畴,include number, gender, case and countability (case);

the categories of the verb 动词的范畴：tense, aspect, voice, etc.

6. Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun 名词和不可数名词

Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural 单数和复数

Number is also reflected in the in flect ions of pronouns and verbs

7. Gen der is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.

In En glish, the gen der disti ncti ons are on the whole n atural, determ ined by the biological gen der of the creature.

8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words

in a sen te nee在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系

In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative 主格,accusative 受格,and genitive 与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive 所有格

In En glish, the case of noun is realized in three cha nn els:(a) in flect ion(b) follow ing a prepositi on(c) word order

9. Tense 时态:the absolute locati on of an eve nt or action on time. It is marked by an in flect ion of the verb. As a result, there are only two ten ses recog ni zed now: past and prese nt.

Si nee the future time does not in volve any in flect ion of the verb, we do not refer to a “ future tense ” , even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.

10. Aspect 体:It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective (完成体)and Imperfective (进行体)

Perfective and Progressive (in En glish)

11. Voice 语态:describe the relationship between verb and subject

Passive被动语态and active 主动语态

12. Con cord and gover nment

①Concord ( 一致关系)refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.

②Government 支配关系)is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a

sentence.

In traditi onal grammar, the term gover nment has typically bee n used to refer to the relati on ship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns

13. The Structural Approach，由Ferdinand de Saussure 提出

14.Syntactic Relations : Positional relations 位置关系、Relations of substitutability 替代关系、Relations of co-occurrenee 同现关系

15.1mmediate constituent （直接成分）is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.

16. A n en doce ntric con struct ion （向心结构）is a con struct ion that contains:

1） a head, which is the sin gle obligatory eleme nt in the con struct ion;

2）one or more optio nal eleme nts subord in ate to the head.

17. theme （主位）refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener

Rheme （述位）refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be tran smitted to the reader or liste ner

The linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.

subject, predicate （grammatical side）

theme, rheme （fun cti onal side）

1. What is Sema ntics?

Sema ntics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and senten ces.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科

2. Geoffrey Leech 利奇Seven types of meaning7 种意义类型：

①Conceptual meaning 概念意义

②Connotative meaning 内涵意义

③Social meaning社会意义

④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning 联想意义（②--- ⑥）

⑤Reflected meaning 反射意义

⑥Collocative meaning 搭配意义

⑦Thematic meaning主位意义

3. Conceptual meaning （概念意义）is also called “denota外涎义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系

Con ceptual meaning is meaning give n in the dict ion ary.

4. Associative meaning （联想意义）is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word

Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.

5. Thematic meaning （主位意义）is “ what is com muni cated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. 它是由词序和词语重音所决定的

6. The Referential Theory （指称理论）：

①The Refere ntial Theory

②The Sema ntic Trian gle

③Sense and Refere nee

7. The referential theory 指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论

8. The semantic triangle 语意三角is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to

and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的

9.Sense 涵义）is a set of properties possessed by a name.

10. Refere nee （指称）is the symbolic relati on ship that a lin guistic expressi on has with the con crete object.

11. The senseof an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represe nts

Every word has a sen se, but not every word has a referen ce.

12. Se nse Relatio ns 涵义关系

①Synonymy （同义关系）

②Antonymy （反义关系）（Gradable、Compleme ntary、Con verse）

③Hyponymy （上下义关系）

13. But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.

14. Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）、Compleme ntary antonymy （互补反义关系）、Con verse antonymy （反向反义关系）

15. Comp onen tial an alysis is an approach to the study of meaning which an alyses a word into a set of meaning comp onents.

16. Sentence Mea ning

17. Sense relati ons betwee n sentences

①Synonymity （同义）

a. He was a bachelor all his life.

b. He n ever married all his boy.

Sentences a and b are in a synonym ous relati on ship: the truth of one sentence n ecessarily implies the truth of ano ther sentence

②Inconsistency （矛盾）

a. Elizabeth II is Quee n of En gla nd.

b. Elizabeth II is a man.

Sentences a and b are in a relati on ship of con tradicti on: the truth of one sentence n ecessarily implies the false ness of ano ther sentence.

③En tailme nt （蕴涵）

a. He married a blonde heiress.

b. He married a bion de.

En tailme nt refers to a kind of meaning in clusi on. If x en tails y, the meaning of x is in cluded in y.

④Presupposition （前提预设）

It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already kno ws.

⑤Contradiction （矛盾）

⑥Semantic anomaly （语义反常）

18. An integrated theory

*Compositionality（组合性原贝U ）：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the con stitue nt words and the way they are comb in ed.

*This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics

*Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules

*The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words

*The project ion rules are resp on sible for comb ining the meanings of words together.

19. Logical semantics （逻辑语义学）

* A proposition（命题）is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.

*It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.

* A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.

I. Language and Culture:①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis ② Evidenee Given by Whorf ③ Implication of SWH ④ Relati on betwee n Lan guage and Culture

2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism （语言决定论）: the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.

Language may determine our thinking patterns. （语言决定思维） P162

3. Relation between Language and Culture

Language influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by language

Culture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterations

4. Language and Society

Relation between Language and Society

Varieties of language（Dialects、Registers）

Bilingualism and Diglossia

Pidgin and Creole

5. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.

6. Dialectal Varieties : Regional dialect 、Social dialec（t Sociolect、Language and gender、Language and age、Idiolect 、Ethnic dialect ）

7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.

8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.

9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.

10. R egister refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.

II. Halliday ' s Register Theory

Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.

Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse （语场）、tenor of discourse （语旨）、mode of discourse （语式）

12. Bilingualism （双语制）: the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.

13. Diglossia （双语体现象）: when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.

14 ．A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for

communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other 15.A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole. 1.What is Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication .

2 Semantics and Pragmatics

Similarity ： Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaning

Difference ：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ； Pragmatic = meaning - semantics

3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory 、The Theory of Conversational Implicature 、 Post-Gricean Developments

4.Speech Act Theory （言语行为理论）:① Performatives and Constatives ② A theory of the illocutionary act

5. The utterance which performs an act is called a performative （ 行事话语 ）。

6. A constative （述事话语 ） is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false. 7Characteristics of Implicature : Calculability 、 Cancellability 、 Non-detachability 、 Non-conventionality

8. Calculability （ 可推导性 ）: means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.

9. Cancellability/Defeasibility （ 可 取 消 性 / 可 废 除 原 则 ） If the factors that conversational implicature relied on change, the implicature will also change.

10. Relevance Theory 关联理论

Communicative Principle of Relevance : Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.

Cognitive Principle of Relevance : Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.

s language.