CCD图像图像处理外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
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翻译部分
Raw CCD images are exceptional but not perfect. Due to the digital nature of the data many of the imperfections can be compensated for or calibrated out of the final image through digital image processing.
Composition of a Raw CCD Image.
A raw CCD image consists of the following signal components:
IMAGE SIGNAL - The signal from the source.Electrons are generated from the actual source photons.
BIAS SIGNAL - Initial signal already on the CCD before the exposure is taken. This signal is due to biasing the CCD offset slightly above zero A/D counts (ADU).
THERMAL SIGNAL - Signal (Dark Current thermal electrons) due to the thermal activity of the semiconductor. Thermal signal is reduced by cooling of the CCD to low temperature.
Sources of Noise
CCD images are susceptible to the following sources of noise:
PHOTON NOISE - Random fluctuations in the photon signal of the source. The rate at which photons are received is not constant.
THERMAL NOISE - Statistical fluctuations in the generation of Thermal signal. The rate at which electrons are produced in the semiconductor substrate due to thermal effects is not constant.
READOUT NOISE - Errors in reading the signal; generally dominated by the
on-chip amplifier.
QUANTIZATION NOISE - Errors introduced in the A/D conversion process.
SENSITIVITY VARIATION - Sensitivity variations from photosite to photosite on the CCD detector or across the detector. Modern CCD's are uniform to better than 1%
between neighboring photosites and uniform to better than 10% across the entire surface.
Noise Corrections
REDUCING NOISE - Readout Noise and Quantization Noise are limited by the construction of the CCD camera and can not be improved upon by the user. Thermal Noise, however, can be reduced by cooling of the CCD (temperature regulation). The Sensitivity Variations can be removed by proper flat fielding.
CORRECTING FOR THE BIAS AND THERMAL SIGNALS - The Bias and Thermal signals can be subtracted out from the Raw Image by taking what is called a Dark Exposure. The dark exposure is a measure of the Bias Signal and Thermal Signal and may simply be subtracted from the Raw Image.
FLAT FIELDING -A record of the photosite to photosite sensitivity variations can be obtained by taking an exposure of a uniformly lit 'flat field". These variations can then be divided out of the Raw Image to produce an image essentially free from this source of error. Any length exposure will do, but ideally one which saturates the pixels to the 50% or 75% level is best.
The Final Processed Image
The final Processed Image which removes unwanted signals and reduces noise as best we can is computed as follows:
Final Processed Image = (Raw - Dark)/Flat
All of the digital image processing functions described above can be accomplished by using CCDOPS software furnished with each SBIG imaging camera. The steps to accomplish them are described in the Operating Manual furnished with each SBIG imaging camera. At SBIG we offer our technical support to help you with questions on how to improve your images.
HOW TO SELECT THE CORRECT CCD IMAGING CAMERA FOR YOUR TELESCOPE
When new customers contact SBIG we discuss their imaging camera application. We try to get an idea of their interests. We have found this method is an effective way of insuring that our customers get the right imaging camera for their purposes. Some
of the questions we ask are as follows:
What type of telescope do you presently own? Having this information allows us to match the CCD imaging Camera's parameters, pixel size and field of view to your telescope. We can also help you interface the CCD imaging camera's automatic guiding functions to your telescope.
Are you a MAC or PC user? Since our software supports both of these platforms we can insure that you receive the correct software. We can also answer questions about any unique functions in one or the other. We can send you a demonstration copy of the appropriate software for your review.
Do you have a telescope drive base with an autoguider port? Do you want to operate from a remote computer? Companies like Software Bisque fully support our products with telescope control and imaging camera software.
Do you want to take photographic quality images of deep space objects, image planets, or perform wide field searches for near earth asteroids or supernovas? In learning about your interests we can better guide you to the optimum CCD pixel size and imaging area for the application.
Do you want to make photometric measurements of variable stars or determine precise asteroid positions? From this information we can recommend a CCD imaging camera model and explain how to use the specific analysis functions to perform these tasks. We can help you characterize your imaging camera by furnishing additional technical data.
Do you want to automatically guide long uninterrupted astrophotographs? As the company with the most experience in CCD autoguiding we can help you install and operate a CCD autoguider on your telescope. The Model STV has a worldwide reputation for accurate guiding on dim guide stars. No matter what type of telescope you own we can help you correctly interface it and get it working properly.
SBIG CCD IMAGING CAMERAS
The SBIG product line consists of a series of thermoelectrically cooled CCD imaging cameras designed for a wide range of applications ranging from astronomy, tricolor imaging, color photometry, spectroscopy, medical imaging, densitometry, to chemiluminescence and epifluorescence imaging, etc. This catalog includes information on astronomical imaging cameras, scientific imaging cameras,
autoguiding, and accessories. We have tried to arrange the catalog so that it is easy to compare products by specifications and performance. The tables in the product section compare some of the basic characteristics on each CCD imaging camera in our product line. You will find a more detailed set of specifications with each individual imaging camera description.
HOW TO GET STARTED USING YOUR CCD IMAGING CAMERA
It all starts with the software. If there's any company well known for its outstanding imaging camera software it's SBIG. Our CCDOPS Operating Software is well known for its user oriented camera control features and stability. CCDOPS is available for free download from our web site along with sample images that you can display and analyze using the image processing and analysis functions of the CCDOPS software. You can become thoroughly familiar with how our imaging cameras work and the capabilities of the software before you purchase an imaging camera. We also include CCDSoftV5 and TheSky from Software Bisque with most of our cameras at no additional charge. Macintosh users receive a free copy of EquinoX planetarium and camera control software for the MacOS-X operating system. No other manufacturer offers better software than you get with SBIG cameras. New customers receiving their CCD imaging camera should first read the installation section in their CCDOPS Operating Manual. Once you have read that section you should have no difficulty installing CCDOPS software on your hard drive, connecting the USB cable from the imaging camera to your computer, initiating the imaging camera and within minutes start taking your first CCD images. Many of our customers are amazed at how easy it is to start taking images. Additional information can be found by reading the image processing sections of the CCDOPS and CCDSoftV5 Manuals. This information allows you to progress to more advanced features such as automatic dark frame subtraction of images, focusing the imaging camera, viewing, analyzing and processing the images on the monitor, co-adding images, taking automatic sequences of images, photometric and astrometric measurements, etc.
A PERSONAL TOUCH FROM SBIG
At SBIG we have had much success with a program in which we continually review customer's images sent to us on disk or via e-mail. We can often determine the cause of a problem from actual images sent in by a user. We review the images and contact
each customer personally. Images displaying poor telescope tracking, improper imaging camera focus, oversaturated images, etc., are typical initial problems. We will help you quickly learn how to improve your images. You can be assured of personal technical support when you need it. The customer support program has furnished SBIG with a large collection of remarkable images. Many customers have had their images published in SBIG catalogs, ads, and various astronomy magazines. We welcome the chance to review your images and hope you will take advantage of our trained staff to help you improve your images.
TRACK AND ACCUMULATE (U.S. Patent # 5,365,269)
Using an innovative engineering approach SBIG developed an imaging camera function called Track & Accumulate (TRACCUM) in which multiple images are automatically registered to create a single long exposure. Since the long exposure consists of short images the total combined exposure significantly improves resolution by reducing the cumulative telescope periodic error. In the TRACCUM mode each image is shifted to correct guiding errors and added to the image buffer. In this mode the telescope does not need to be adjusted. The great sensitivity of the CCD virtually guarantees that there will be a usable guide star within the field of view. This feature provides dramatic improvement in resolution by reducing the effect of periodic error and allowing unattended hour long exposures. SBIG has been granted U.S. Patent # 5,365,269 for Track & Accumulate.
DUAL CCD SELF-GUIDING (U.S. Patent # 5,525,793)
In 1994 with the introduction of Models ST-7 and ST-8 CCD Imaging Cameras which incorporate two separate CCD detectors, SBIG was able to accomplish the goal of introducing a truly self-guided CCD imaging camera. The ability to select guide stars with a separate CCD through the full telescope aperture is equivalent to having a thermoelectrically cooled CCD autoguider in your imaging camera. This feature has been expanded to all dual sensor ST series cameras (ST-7/8/9/10/2000) and all STL series cameras (STL-1001/1301/4020/6303/11000). One CCD is used for guiding and the other for collecting the image. They are mounted in close proximity, both focused at the same plane, allowing the imaging CCD to integrate while the PC uses the guiding CCD to correct the telescope. Using a separate CCD for guiding allows 100% of the primary CCD's active area to be used to collect the image. The telescope correction rate and limiting guide star magnitude can be independently
selected. Tests at SBIG indicated that 95% of the time a star bright enough for guiding will be found on a TC237 tracking CCD without moving the telescope, using an f/6.3 telescope. The self-guiding function quickly established itself as the easiest and most accurate method for guiding CCD images. Placing both detectors in close proximity at the same focal plane insures the best possible guiding. Many of the long integrated exposures now being published are taken with this self-guiding method, producing very high resolution images of deep space objects. SBIG has been granted U.S. Patent # 5,525,793 for the dual CCD Self-Guiding function.
COMPUTER PLATFORMS
SBIG has been unique in its support of both PC and Macintosh platforms for our cameras. The imaging cameras in this catalog communicate with the host computer through standard serial or USB ports depending on the specific models. Since there are no external plug-in boards required with our imaging camera systems we encourage users to operate with the new family of high resolution graphics laptop computers. We furnish Operating Software for you to install on your host computer. Once the software is installed and communication with the imaging camera is set up complete control of all of the imaging camera functions is through the host computer keyboard. The recommended minimum requirements for memory and video graphics are as shown below.
GENERAL CONCLUSION
(1) of this item from the theoretical analysis of the use of CCD technology for real-time non-contact measuring the diameter of the feasibility of measuring it is fast, efficient, accurate, high degree of automation, off-production time and so on.
(2) projects to test the use of CCD technology to achieve real-time, online non-contact measurement, developed by the CCD-line non-contact diameter measurement system has a significant technology advanced and practical application of significance. (3) from the theoretical and experimental project on the summary of the utilization of CCD technology developed by SCM PV systems improve the measurement accuracy of several ways: improving crystal, a multi-pixel CCD devices and take full advantage of CCD-like device Face width.
译文
原料CCD图像是例外，但并非十全十美。由于数字数据的性质有很多不完善，可以得到补偿或校准出最后的形象，通过数字图像处理。组成原料CCD图像。原料CCD图像组成，以下信号组成部分：图像信号-信号从s ource.electrons 产生实际的光子源。偏置信号-初步信号已经在防治荒漠化公约前曝光是所采取的。这个信号是由于偏置防治荒漠化公约抵销略高于零的A / D计数（ adu ）。热信号-信号（暗电流的热电子）由于热活性半导体。热信号是减少冷却防治荒漠化公约低温。来源噪音CCD图像很容易受到以下来源的噪音：光子噪声-随机波动，在光子的信号源。率在哪个光子收到的是不是常数。热噪声-统计的波动产生的热信号。率，其中电子产品在半导体基板由于热效应是不是常数。读出噪声-在读的错误信号;普遍占主导地位由芯片内建的放大器。量化噪声-错误介绍了在A / D转换过程。
敏感性的变化-敏感性的变化，从p hotosite，以p hotosite对C CD探测器或整个探测器。现代的CCD是统一，以更好地超过1 ％的邻国间photosites 和统一，以更好地超过10 ％，横跨整个表面。
噪音更正减少噪音-读出噪声和量化噪声是有限的，由建设的C CD相机，并不能改善后，由用户。热噪声，但是，可以减少冷却防治荒漠化公约（温度调节）。敏感性的变化可以删除适当的平场。
纠正偏见和热的信号-偏见和热信号可以减去从R AW图像，采取什么是所谓的一个黑暗的暴露。黑暗曝光，是衡量偏差信号和热信号和可能只是减去RAW 图像。
平场-的纪录，该photosite ，以photosite敏感性的变化可以得到以一曝光，均匀点燃了'平场“。这些变化便可以划分出RAW图像，以产生一个形象，基本上是免费的从这个误差来源。任何长度的接触将尽，但理想的其中饱和像素到50 ％或75 ％的水平是最好的。
最后处理的图像最后处理的形象，删除无用信号，并降低噪音，最好的，我们可以计算如下：
最后处理的图像= （原料-黑暗） /单位所有的数字图像处理功能上文所述，可以通过使用ccdops软件家具与每个sbig成像相机。步骤来完成他们所描述的操作手册家具与每个sbig成像相机。在sbig我们提供我们的技术支持，以帮助您的问题，就如何改善你的图像。
如何选择正确的CCD成像相机为您的望远镜
当新客户的联系sbig我们讨论他们的成像相机应用。我们争取的构想他们的利益。我们发现，这种方法是一种有效方式，投保我们的客户得到正确的影像相机
为他们的目的。的一些问题，我们要求分列如下：
什么类型的望远镜，你目前自己的呢？有这方面的资料，让我们以配合CCD 成像相机的参数，像素大小和领域，以便您的望远镜。我们还可以帮助您界面CCD成像照相机的自动导向功能到您的望远镜。
你是Mac或PC使用者？由于我们的软件支持这两种平台，我们可以保证您收到正确的软件。我们也可以回答有关任何独特功能，在一个或另一个。我们可以寄给您一个示范的副本，适当的软件，供您检阅。
你是否有望远镜的驱动器基地，你想不想经营从远程计算机呢？公司一样，软件bisque全力支持我们的产品与望远镜控制和成像相机软件。
你想不想采取摄影图像质量的深空物体，行星的图像，或执行广泛的领域搜寻近地小行星或supernovas ？在学习关于您的利益，我们可以更好地引导您以最佳的CCD像素大小和成像等领域的应用。
你想不想使光度测量变星或确定精确的小行星的职位？从这个信息我们可以向您推荐CCD成像相机型号，并解释如何使用具体分析的职能，以执行这些任务。我们可以帮助你的特点你的影像相机通过提供额外的技术数据。
你想不想自动引导长期不间断的作为该公司最的经验，防治荒漠化公约autoguiding我们可以帮助你安装和运行了CCD autoguider对您的望远镜。该模型基金会已享誉全球，为正确的指导就黯淡引导星。不管什么类型的望远镜，你自己的，我们可以帮助您正确的接口，它并获得它工作正常。 sbig CCD成像相机
该sbig产品线构成了一系列的thermoelectrically冷却CCD成像相机设计的范围广泛的应用，包括从天文，三色成像，彩色测光，光谱学，医学成像，密度，化学发光和epifluorescence影像等，这包括信息目录对天文的影像照相机，科学成像相机， autoguiding ，及配件。我们曾尝试安排目录，使我们很容易比较产品的技术规格和性能。表中，在产品第比较的一些基本特征，在每个CCD 成像相机在我们的产品线。您会看到一个更详细的设置规格与每一个人影像相机描述。
如何开始使用您的CCD成像相机
这一切开始与该软件。如果有任何公司，以及闻名，其优秀的成像相机软件，它的sbig 。我们ccdops操作软件，是人所共知的，为它的用户导向的相机控制功能和稳定性。 ccdops是提供免费下载从我们的网站，随着样本图像，您可以显示和分析，利用图像处理和分析的职能，该ccdops软件。你就可以成为彻底熟悉如何，我们的影像照相机的工作和能力的软件之前，请先购买一成像相机。我们还包括ccdsoftv5和thesky从软件bisque与我们大部分的摄影机不得收取
任何附加费用。 Macintosh用户收到一个免费的副本之天文馆和相机控制软件，为的MacOS - X操作系统。没有其他的制造商提供更好的软件比你所获得的sbig 相机。新客户接受他们的CCD成像相机，首先要阅读安装在其第ccdops操作手册。一旦您已经阅读第你应该有任何困难，安装ccdops软件对您的硬盘驱动器，连接USB缆线从影像相机到您的电脑，启动影像相机和在几分钟内开始把您的第一CCD图像。我们的许多客户都感到惊讶它是如何的方便开始采取图像。更多信息可发现，通过阅读图像处理路段的ccdops和ccdsoftv5手册。这方面的资料可让您的进展，以更先进的功能，如自动黑暗的框架减法的图像，把重点放在成像相机，检视，分析与处理的图像上萤幕，合作，加入图像，同时自动序列图像，天体测量和光度测量等。oversaturated图像等，是典型的初始的问题。我们将帮助您迅速了解如何改善您的图像。你可以放心,个人技术支持，当您需要它。客户支持计划提供了sbig一个大型收集了显着的图像。许多客户有其图像发表在sbig目录，广告和各种天文学杂志。我们欢迎有机会检讨您的图片，并希望您将充分利用我们的训练有素的工作人员来帮助您改善您的图片。
使用一种创新的工程方法， sbig研制出一种影像相机功能的所谓轨道＆积累（traccum），其中多张图片自动注册，以建立一个单一的长时间曝光。由于长时间曝光构成短期图像总结合曝光显着提高决议案通过减少累积望远镜周期误差。在traccum模式，每幅图像是转移到正确的指导错误，并添加到图像缓冲区。在此模式下望远镜并不需要加以调整。伟大的敏感性，防治荒漠化公约几乎保证会有一个实用指南星内部的视野。此功能可提供戏剧性的改善，在决议通过减少的影响，周期误差，并允许无人值守小时长的风险。sbig已获得美国专利编号5365269，为田径运动积累。双CCD的自我指导（美国专利编号5,525,793 ）
在1994年与引进模式的ST- 7和ST- 8 CCD成像相机，其中包含两个单独的CCD 探测器， sbig是能够完成的目标，引进一个真正的自导的CCD成像相机。能够选择引导星与一个单独的CCD通过充分望远镜光圈，相当于有一个thermoelectrically冷却的CCD autoguider在您的影像相机。此功能已扩大到所有双传感器ST系列相机（st-7/8/9/10/2000）和所有的STL系列相机
（ stl-1001/1301/4020/6303/11000 ）。1防治荒漠化公约是用于指导和其他收集的形象。他们是安装在接近，都集中在同一平面，使成像CCD的整合，而PC 机使用的指导防治荒漠化公约，以正确的望远镜。使用一个单独的CCD为指导，使100 ％的小学防治荒漠化公约的积极方面，以被用来搜集的形象。望远镜的校正率和限制导航星的规模可以独立选定。测试sbig表明， 95 ％的时间明星光明足够的指导，将发现的一tc237跟踪的CCD移动望远镜，使用f/6.3望远镜。自我的指导作用迅速确立了自己作为最简单和最精确的方法，为指导CCD图像。
配售两探测器在接近在同一焦平面保险尽可能最好的指导。许多长期的综合风险，现在正在出版是采取这种自我指导的方法，生产甚高分辨率图像深的空间物体。 sbig已获得美国专利编号为5525793的双重防治荒漠化公约自律的指导作用。
计算机平台
sbig已在其独特的支持，双方的PC和Macintosh平台，为我们的相机。成像相机在此目录的沟通与主机电脑通过标准的串行或USB连接埠视具体型号。由于没有外部程式在议会的要求与我们的成像摄像系统，我们鼓励用户与新的家庭高分辨率的图形的笔记本电脑。我们提供操作软件，让您安装在您的主机电脑。一旦软件安装和通信与影像相机是成立完全控制所有的成像相机功能是通过主机电脑键盘。建议的最低要求。
人工智能专业外文翻译-机器人
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最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
机械类数控车床外文翻译外文文献英文文献车床.doc
Lathes Lathes are machine tools designed primarily to do turning, facing and boring, Very little turning is done on other types of machine tools, and none can do it with equal facility. Because lathes also can do drilling and reaming, their versatility permits several operations to be done with a single setup of the work piece. Consequently, more lathes of various types are used in manufacturing than any other machine tool. The essential components of a lathe are the bed, headstock assembly, tailstock assembly, and the leads crew and feed rod. The bed is the backbone of a lathe. It usually is made of well normalized or aged gray or nodular cast iron and provides s heavy, rigid frame on which all the other basic components are mounted. Two sets of parallel, longitudinal ways, inner and outer, are contained on the bed, usually on the upper side. Some makers use an inverted V-shape for all four ways, whereas others utilize one inverted V and one flat way in one or both sets, They are precision-machined to assure accuracy of alignment. On most modern lathes the way are surface-hardened to resist wear and abrasion, but precaution should be taken in operating a lathe to assure that the ways are not damaged. Any inaccuracy in them usually means that the accuracy of the entire lathe is destroyed. The headstock is mounted in a foxed position on the inner ways, usually at the left end of the bed. It provides a powered means of rotating the word at various speeds . Essentially, it consists of a hollow spindle, mounted in accurate bearings, and a set of transmission gears-similar to a truck transmission—through which the spindle can be rotated at a number of speeds. Most lathes provide from 8 to 18 speeds, usually in a geometric ratio, and on modern lathes all the speeds can be obtained merely by moving from two to four levers. An increasing trend is to provide a continuously variable speed range through electrical or mechanical drives. Because the accuracy of a lathe is greatly dependent on the spindle, it is of heavy construction and mounted in heavy bearings, usually preloaded tapered roller or ball types. The spindle has a hole extending through its length, through which long bar stock can be fed. The size of maximum size of bar stock that can be machined when the material must be fed through spindle. The tailsticd assembly consists, essentially, of three parts. A lower casting fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide longitudinally thereon, with a means for clamping the entire assembly in any desired location, An upper casting fits on the lower one and can be moved transversely upon it, on some type of keyed ways, to permit aligning the assembly is the tailstock quill. This is a hollow steel cylinder, usually about 51 to 76mm(2to 3 inches) in diameter, that can be moved several inches longitudinally in and out of the upper casting by means of a hand wheel and screw. The size of a lathe is designated by two dimensions. The first is known as the swing. This is the maximum diameter of work that can be rotated on a lathe. It is approximately twice the distance between the line connecting the lathe centers and the nearest point on the ways, The second size dimension is the maximum distance between centers. The swing thus indicates the maximum work piece diameter that can be turned in the lathe, while the distance between centers indicates the maximum length of work piece that can be mounted between centers. Engine lathes are the type most frequently used in manufacturing. They are heavy-duty machine tools with all the components described previously and have power drive for all tool movements except on the compound rest. They commonly range in size from 305 to 610 mm(12 to 24 inches)swing and from 610 to 1219 mm(24 to 48 inches) center distances, but swings up to 1270 mm(50 inches) and center distances up
论文《人工智能》---文献检索结课作业
人工智能 【摘要】：人工智能是一门极富挑战性的科学，但也是一门边沿学科。它属于自然科学和社会科学的交叉。涉及的学科主要有哲学、认知科学、数学、神经生理学、心理学、计算机科学、信息论、控制论、不定性论、仿生学等。人工智能(Artificial Intelligence)，英文缩写为AI。它是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技术科学。人工智能是计算机科学的一个分支，它企图了解智能的实质，并生产出一种新的能以人类智能相似的方式做出反应的智能机器，该领域的研究包括机器人、语言识别、图像识别、自然语言处理和专家系统等1。 【关键词】：人工智能；应用领域；发展方向；人工检索。 1．人工智能描述 人工智能(Artificial Intelligence) ，英文缩写为AI。它是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技术科学2。人工智能是计 算机科学的一个分支，它企图了解智 能的实质，并生产出一种新的能以人 类智能相似的方式作出反应的智能 机器，该领域的研究包括机器人、语 言识别、图像识别、自然语言处理和 专家系统等。“人工智能”一词最初 是在1956 年Dartmouth学会上提出 的。从那以后,研究者们发展了众多 理论和原理,人工智能的概念也随之扩展。人工智能是一门极富挑战性的科学，从事这项工作的人必须懂得计算机知识，心理学和哲学。人工智能是包括十分广泛的科学，它由不同的领域组成，如机器学习，计算机视觉等等，总的说来，人工智能研究的一个主要目标是使机器能够胜任一些通常需要人类智能才能完成的复杂工作。但不同的时代、不同的人对这种“复杂工作”的理解是不同的。例如繁重的科学和工程计算本来是要人脑来承担的，现在计算机不但能完成这种计算, 而且能够比人脑做得更快、更准确，因之当代人已不再把这种计算看作是“需要人类智能才能完成的复 1.蔡自兴，徐光祐.人工智能及其应用.北京：清华大学出版社，2010 2元慧·议当人工智能的应用领域与发展状态〖Ｊ〗．2008
外文翻译
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.360docs.net/doc/649060850.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
外文翻译(带图)
外文翻译 通常，应变计应用在两个方面：在机械和结构的实验力分析中和应用力，扭矩，压力,流量以及加速度传感器结构中。非粘贴丝式应变计通常是当作专门的转换器来使用，其结构是使用一些有预载荷的电阻丝连接成惠斯登电桥，如图4.11： 在最初的预载荷中，四根金属丝的应变和电阻在理论上是相等的，它们组成一个平衡电桥，并且e0 = 0 （参考第10章电桥电路特性）。输入端一个小的位移（满量程≈0.04 mm）将会使两根金属丝的拉力增大而使另外两根的拉力减小（假设金属丝不会变松弛），引起电阻阻值的变化，电桥失衡，输出电压与输入位移成比例。金属丝可以由砷镍、镍铬和铁镍等多种合金制造，直径约为0.03 mm，可以承受的最大应力仅为0.002 N，灵敏系数为2到4，每个桥臂的电阻为120Ω到1000Ω, 最大激励电压5到10V，满量程输出典型值为20到50mV。 粘结丝式应变计（现在主要被粘贴箔式结构的应变计取代）应用于应力分析和作为转换器。具有很细丝式敏感栅粘贴在待测试件表面，来感受应变。金属丝被埋入矩形的粘合剂中，不能弯曲从而如实地反映待测试件的压缩和拉伸应力。因为金属丝的材料和尺寸与那些非粘贴应变计相似，所以灵敏度和电阻具有了可比性。 粘贴箔式应变计采用与丝式应变计相同或类似的材料，现在主要用于多用途力分析任务及多种传感器中。 其感应元件是利用光腐蚀工艺加工成厚度小于0.0002的薄片，当其形状改变时，它具有很大的灵活性。如图4.12： 例如，这三个线形敏感栅应变计被设计成端部宽大的形状。这种局部的增大将会减小横向灵敏度，以及在测量应变沿敏感栅单元的长度方向的分量时产生的干扰输入信号。在丝式应变计中，这种端部形状也应用在纵向单元的连接处，以便增加横向抗干扰能力。并且在制造过程中也非常方便在图4.12上的全部四个应变计上焊接焊盘。
数控激光加工的技术水平以及应用外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
英文文献 Numerical control laser processing technology and application Pick to: as the main symbol of science and Technology development in the 20th century and the modern information society one of the pillars of optoelectronic Technology, Laser Technology, Laser Technology) and the development of Laser industry attaches great importance to by the advanced countries in the world. Numerical control and integrated the Laser and the optical system of the computer numerical control technology, advanced and high precision and automation of the workpiece positioning, the combination of formation, development and production of machining center has become a Laser machining, Laser Processing) is an important trend of development. Key words: CNC; Laser machining, Laser Processing); Level; application Before: laser is regarded as one of the most important scientific discoveries of the twentieth century, as soon as it was caused the great attention of materials scientists. In November 1971, gm pioneered the use of a 250 w CO2 laser to improve wear resistance materials using laser radiation test and research, and in 1974 successfully completed automobile redirector shell