(战略管理)第十一章_产品定价定价策略

第十一章产品定价：定价策略

定价决策受到一系列复杂环境和竞争因素的影响。公司制定的不只是一个价格，而是一个涵盖它的一系列产品的价格结构。这一价格结构随产品生命周期的变化而变化。公司调整产品的价格以反映成本和需求的变化，并适应各种购买者和情况的变动。当竞争环境变化时，公司就开始考虑何时开始改变价格和怎样适应变化了。

1、描述模仿产品和新产品的定价策略

定价是一个动态的过程。公司为自己的全部产品设定一个定价结构。随着时间的推移，公司不断改变这个结构，以适应不同的消费者和形势变化，定价策略常常随着产品生命周期的变化而变化。公司可以从几?quot;价格-质量"策略中选择一种作为推出模仿产品的定价，包括溢价定价、经济型定价、优质定价和高索价。在为创新型产品定价时，可以使用撇脂定价法，制定一个很高的价格，从各个细分市场上获取最大的收入；或者使用市场渗透定价法，制定一个较低的初始价格，深入市场占领较大的市场份额。

2、解释公司如何找到一个使产品组合总利润最高的价格系列

当产品是产品组合中的一部分时，公司寻求一个使总利润最高的产品组合定价策略。在产品线定价中，公司要决定不同产品的价格差别。公司还要为备选产品、附属产品、副产品和产品束定价。

3、讨论公司如何调整价格以适应不同的消费者和情况

公司使用一系列价格调整策略，以适应不同的细分市场和情况。一种策略是折扣和折让定价，第二种策略是细分市场定价，有时，公司在决定定价策略时考虑的不仅是经济因素，它们使用心理定价以更好地传达一种产品的定位。另一种方法是地理定价，最后，国际定价策略意味着公司要调整价格，以适应世界不同市场的环境和公司在不同市场上的期望目标。

4、讨论主动变动价格和适应价格变动中的关键问题

当公司考虑主动变动价格时，必须同时考虑顾客和竞争者的反应。主动降价和主动提价都会对他们产生不同的暗示。购买者对价格变化的反应，受消费者对价格变化的理解的影响。竞争者的反应可能来自于既定的政策，也可能是来自对各种情况的分析。

在应付竞争者的价格变动中也有许多因素值得考虑。面对竞争者的价格变动，公司必须尽力了解竞争者的意图，变动可能持续的时间及其影响。如果需要快速反应，企业应该事先计划，对竞争者可能采取的不同价格变动行为准备对策。面对竞争者的价格变动，公司可以保持不变、降低价格、提高感知质量、改进质量、提高价格，或者推出一个战斗品牌。

关键概念和原则

当公司推出一种新产品时，它们有两种选择：市场撇脂定价法和市场渗透定价法。

撇脂定价法只有在特定条件下才有意义。

市场渗透定价法要起作用必须满足几个条件。

在产品线定价过程中，管理部门必须决定同一产品线中不同产品的价格差别。

许多公司在销售与主体产品配套的备选产品或附件时，采用备选产品定价法。

如果公司生产的产品与一个主体产品同时使用，需要使用附属产品定价法。

使用副产品定价法时，制造商需要找到这些副产品的市场，价格只要比储存和运输副产品的成本高就可以了。

使用产品束定价法时，销售商一般将几种产品组合成一束降价销售。

许多公司通过调整基础价格，以回报消费者的某些行为，这些价格调整被称作折扣和折让，有多种形式。现金折扣、数量折扣、功能折扣、季节折扣、折让。

通过细分市场定价法，公司以两种或多种价格销售产品或服务。

细分定价策略有消费者子市场定价、产品形式定价、地点定价、时间定价。

在使用心理定价法时，销售商不仅要考虑经济学方面的问题，还必须考虑与价格有关的心理方面的问题。

心理定价的另一方面是参考价格，也就是当购买者看到一件产品时心里所想到的价格。

使用促销定价法时，公司可以暂时制定低于标准，甚至低于成本的价格。

五种地理定价策略：FOB起点定价法、统一交货定价法、地区定价法、基本点定价法、无运费定价法。

公司在某个国家制定价格要考虑许多具体因素，包括经济状况、竞争形势、法律法规，以及批发与零售系统的发展状况等。

成本对于制定国际价格是一个重要的因素。

促使公司考虑降低价格。一种是公司生产能力过剩，另一种是激烈的价格竞争导致的市场份额下降。

公司可以通过许多方式来提高价格，以跟上成本的增加。

只要有可能，公司应当考虑多种方法来解决成本升高和需求过量的问题，而不是靠提价。

价格升高通常会降低销售量，但也会对购买者产生一些正面的影响。

当价格变动影响到的企业较少，产品的一致性较高，购买者的信息充分的时候，竞争者最容易做出反应。

当有几个竞争者时，公司必须预测每个竞争者可能有的行动。

如果竞争者改变价格。

如果公司决定采取有效的对策，它可能有四种做法。首先，它可以降低价格，与竞争者相匹敌。

公司可以保持价格不变，但是提高产品和服务的感知质量。

公司可以改进质量、提高价格，使自己的品牌进入高层次的市场定位中。

公司可以推出一个低价位的"战斗品牌"。

定价中主要的公共政策问题。包括在同一渠道上的破坏性定价问题（串通定价和掠夺性定价），以及跨渠道的破坏性定价问题（零售价格维持、价格歧视和欺诈性定价）。

CHAPTER 11 PRICING PRODUCTS: PRICING CONSIDERATIONS

AND STRATEGIES

Summary

Since pricing is a dynamic process, companies must design a pricing structure that covers all their products and a variety of constantly changing conditions. Two primary strategies are thoroughly discussed in this chapter.

The marketer wishing to explore pricing strategy options will find a wealth of alternatives from which to choose. The first major option will be pricing with respect to the product mix. Numerous forms of product-mix pricing strategies are examined within the context of the competitive environment. The average marketer does not use all of these methods, however, by studying the options available, the marketer enhances his or her ability to be creative with respect to pricing within the context of the product mix.

Sometimes, however, the firm must make adjustments in their pricing process and strategy. These adjustments are made to account for differences in consumer segments and changing situations. Adjustments can occur through discounts and allowances or by desires to segment markets by price. Additionally, price has a psychological aspect that allows for adjustments just as geographical, promotional, and international relationships can alter pricing methods and strategies. The chapter explores each of these areas in some detail.

Reactions to price changes must be carefully studied. The reactions come from the firm, the consumer, the distribution channel, and competition. Response must be carefully measured and be appropriate if marketing success is to be achieved. In conclusion, the chapter briefly touches on public policy with respect to pricing. Pricing does not occur within a vacuum. Once a price has been made (or adjusted) other components of the environment are affected.

Keywords and principle

A company sets not a single price, but rather a pricing structure that covers different items in its line.

Pricing strategies usually change as the product passes through its life cycle. Two basic broad strategies can be considered in the introductory stage of the product's life cycle.

Market-skimming pricing involves setting a high price for a new product to skim maximum revenue from the segments willing to pay the high price. The company makes fewer but more profitable sales. This approach makes sense under certain conditions:

Market-penetration pricing means setting a low price for a new product in order to attract a large number of buyers and a large market share. This approach makes sense under certain conditions too.

When the product is part of a product mix, the product mix pricing strategies often need to be evaluated. There are five product mix pricing situations.

The first situation is product line pricing. It involves setting the price steps between various products in a product line based on cost differences between the products, customer evaluations of different features, and competitors' prices. The second situation is optional-product pricing. It involves the pricing of optional or accessory products along with a main product.

The third situation is captive product pricing. It involves setting a price for products that must be used along with a main product. In the case of services, this strategy is called two-part pricing where the price of the service is broken into a fixed fee plus a variable usage rate.

The fourth situation is called byproduct pricing. It involves setting a price for by-products in order to make the main product's price more competitive. Sometimes companies don't realize how valuable their byproducts are.

The last situation is product-bundle pricing. It involves combining several products and offering the bundle at a reduced price. Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy, but the combined price must be

low enough to get them to buy the bundle.

Companies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations. Six price adjustment strategies are worth mentioning.

Discount and Allowance Pricing. Discounts and allowances include: quantity discount , functional discount, seasonal discount, An allowance, Promotional allowances . Segmented Pricing. Possible forms include: Customer-segment pricing. Product-form pricing. Location pricing. Time pricing. For segmented pricing to be effective certain conditions must exist.

Psychological Pricing. Psychological pricing is a pricing approach that considers the psychology of prices and not simply the economics; the price is used to say something about the product.

Promotional Pricing. Several forms include: Loss leaders, Special-event pricing , Cash rebates, low-interest financing, longer warranties, or free merchandise, discounts. It has adverse effects .

Geographical Pricing. Geographical pricing must be decided on how to price products to customers located in different parts of the country. Some forms of this are as follows: FOB origin pricing , Uniform delivery pricing , Zone pricing, Basing-point pricing, Freight-absorption pricing .

International Pricing. Companies that market products internationally must decide what prices to charge in the different international countries in which they market. Factors that affect this decision include: Economic conditions. Competitive situations. Laws and regulations. The development of the retailing and wholesaling systems.

Costs play an important role in the pricing decision in the international marketplace.

Initiating price changes means either cutting or raising prices. Initiating price cuts and increases may be necessary because of several situations.

Raising prices can be done by dropping discounts or openly raising them. The company

must carefully avoid the image of being a "price gouger. When possible the company must find ways to meet higher costs or demand without raising prices.

Buyer reactions to price changes are numerous. Price increases also draw mixed reactions.

Competitors react to price changes in different ways. Competitors are most likely to react when the number of firms involved is small, when the product is uniform, and when the buyers are well informed.

Responses to a competitor's price change can be: Reduce its price , Maintain the company's price but raise the perceived quality of its offer, Improve quality and increase price, Launch a new low-price "fighting brand."

Price competition is a core element of our free-market economy. In setting prices, companies are not usually free to charge whatever prices they wish. Significant legislation that impacts pricing includes: The Sherman Antitrust Act. The Clayton Act. The Robinson-Patman Act.

Public policy on pricing centers on three central issues. Price fixing. Price discrimination , Deceptive pricing.