英语论文中summary的写法
Summary
Title: Law in the Louisiana Purchase
Author:William Wirt Howe
Sources: The Yale Law Journal, V ol. 14, No. 2 (Dec., 1904), pp. 77-81.
Published by: The Yale Law Journal Company, Inc.
Introduction
This paper tends to inquire the introduction and and development of law in the Louisiana Purchase.The topic may have some present interest as a matter of legal history and comparative jurisprudence. To apprehend the subject, we have to consider three sources and streams of influence-French, Spanish and English.
Body
French influence
Going back to the 16th and 17th centuries, France was embarking in discovery and colonization in the western world. At that time, France was divided into the country of the written law and the country of the customary law. The southern portion, called the country of the written law,while, the northern region came to be known as the country of the customary law. Both of the two laws in France, however, were influenced by the Roman law.And then, France copied its law system into its colonies like in Canada and America. So did in 1715 the commerce of Louisiana. In theory, Louisiana was governed by the same system of law, Roman at foundation, but modified by statute, edict, ordinance and custom.
Spanish influence
In 1762, the Colony of Louisiana was ceded to Spain. In this way, there came in some elements of Spanish law and jurisprudence. In 1769, as Judge Martin states his “History of Louisiana”, it is believed that the laws of Spain became the sole guide of the tribunals in their decisions. But as these laws, as well as those of France, were based on the Roman system.
English influence
On December 20th ,1803, the United States took possession of the Colony of Louisiana from France. In 1804 the Territory of Orleans was organized, including about the present area of the State of Louisiana. Taking up the legal history of the Territory of Orleans, we find its inhabitants mainly of French and Spanish descent, and strongly attached to the civil law in private matters. In criminal matters, a statute of 1805, which is still in force, adopted the common law of England as the basis of definition and procedure. In 1812 the territory was admitted into the Union as a state, under the name of Louisiana.
It will, therefore, be seen that the system is quite eclectic. So far as general provisions
in regard to persons, property and obligations are concerned, Louisiana may be called a civil law state. But in other important departments of jurisprudence, as pointed out above, she is largely indebted to English and American law.
Conclusion
We have thus seen law and jurisprudence in the making, from their early beginnings to their present development. Two systems have grown up side by side in the Purchase, the one relating back to Rome, the other to early England. We may at least say that the two systems are no longer as antagonistic as they were when Blackstone wrote his first lecture. The more that mere technicality disappears, the more they come to resemble each other.
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英语摘要格式
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summary 范文
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【良心出品】Summary的写作技巧和常见句型
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高一英语作文优秀范文精选【五篇】 高考英语满分作文一般胜在行文清晰、准确、简洁三点，这就是公认的英语满分作文“黄金三定律”。 高一英语作文1 The first day when I go to high school, I felt excited, after 9 years’study, I felt I was so close to university, the dream always gives me motivation to move on. The first year, I made many friends, I got to know all of my classmates, though the study was hard and tedious, I shared happiness and sorrow with my friends. When the second year came, I was arranged to another class, for the need of my major. I was a little frustrated at first, because I was worried no one could talk to me, but I made new friends quickly, sometimes I would keep in touch with my old friends. Now the last year has come, I must study hard, I will go to college next year, never have I felt so close to my dream. High school life is not easy for me, for the pressure is so heavy, but I won’t give
英语摘要写法
摘要（Abstract） 摘要(Abstract) 也成为内容提要，通常在学士论文中都必须附有摘要，其位置应放在论文的正文之前，对整个论文内容的概述。无论对专业读者还是对非专业读者而言，摘要都是一个非常重要的文件。 摘要如果和论文一起发表，则被称为一次性出版物摘要，主要用于帮助读者评价文章内容及其潜在作用，使读者不必阅读全文就可以了解论文的内容。除此之外，摘要也可以被单独收入文摘机构出版的摘要期刊如：生物学文摘（Biological Abstract）、化学文摘（Chemical Abstract）等、称为二次性出版物摘要。此类脱离论文独立成篇的摘要主要用于方便读者检索文献、收集信息，帮助研究者寻找新的研究领域。 一．摘要的定义 摘要的英文术语：有两个词汇，一个是abstract, 一个是summary. 根据美国国家标准学会（American National Standard Institute）于1971年通过并颁布的《美国国家文摘写作标准》（American National Standard for Writing Abstracts）规定，Abstract 不应与summary 混同。 Abstract 对一篇论文的主要内容以精炼的文字进行高度概括，使读者不必阅读全文即可了解论文内容，或者让读者对即将阅读的文章有思想准备，或者让读者判断是否有通读全文的必要。文中只对论文信息进行浓缩，而不加主观评论或解释，可以脱离原文而独立成篇。字数通常在100~150个词左右，更确切地说，约为原文长度的1% ~ 5%（有的杂志规定摘要平均为全文的3% ~ 5%）。现在越来越多的用法是abstract. 尤其是放在索引资料中一律要用abstract 这个术语，在论文的题目下也通常要用这个词。 Summary (概要) 与abstract 无明显差别。严格地说，summary 一般附在论文的后面，对论文的主要结论和成果进行再叙述。其前提是读者已经通读过全文，通过summary 来巩固论文的主要论点和成果。在某些论文中，用summary 取代正文中的conclusion 部分。Summary 是论文的“缩影”，可以概括论文的全部内容，只是在删繁就简上下功夫，字数长短不一，少则两三句话，多则500个单词甚至更长。美国的一些高等学校规定，硕士论文提要（summary）以250词左右为宜，而博士论文题要以350词左右为宜。国际会议论文的提要一般规定为300 ~ 500 词或1000 个印刷符号。 至于究竟要采用什么形式，要根据征稿而定。一般说来，国际学术会议论文及要求按Summary 方式来写摘要，而正式出版发行的刊物要修不尽一致。对于个别论文还见有前面为Abstract, 结尾又有一个Summary , 这多半是由于文章过长，内容有多，后面的Summary 相当于该文的缩写。 二．摘要的种类 摘要分为两类，一类是说明性摘要（Descriptive/ Indicative Abstract），一类是资料性（Informative Abstract）摘要。 1.说明性摘要（Descriptive / Indicative Abstract） 如同迈克尔.艾利（Michael Alley）所说，“一篇说明性摘要是段落形式的目录，使读者手中的一份简要地图。”从这句话中可以清楚地了解说明性摘要的作用。说明性摘要指向读者指出论文的主要议题是什么，不涉及具体的研究方法和结果，但无法给读者提供更多的详细信息。它一般是用于综述性文章，也用于讨论、评论性文章，尤以介绍某学科近期发展动态的论文居多，常出现“…is studied”、“…is discussed”字样。时态多用现在时或现在完成时。其篇幅也较短，大多在100 ~ 150 字之间。以下是一篇说明性摘要的样例。 Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms. 由于说明性摘要仅限于陈述论文的主要论题且篇幅较小，主要用于评述性的论文。 2.资料性摘要（Informative Abstract） 资料性摘要的优点是比说明性摘要能提供多的多的信息，它应该尽量完整和准确地体现原文的具体内容，特别强调指出研究的方法和结果、结论等。其篇幅较长，大多在150 ~250 字之间。根据原文长度，也有多达500字的。通常，这类的摘要反映了论文的基本面貌，能够代替阅读论文全文。
英文Summary写作方法、范例及常用句式
摘要是对一篇文章的主题思想的简单陈述。它用最简洁的语言概括了原文的主题。写摘要主要包括三个步骤：（1）阅读；（2）写作；（3）修改成文。 第一步：阅读 A．认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解，就多读两遍。阅读次数越多，你对原文的理解就越深刻。 B．给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。C．现在，就该决定原文中哪些部分重要，哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。 D．简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步：动手写作 A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数，然后除以三，得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字，但是千万不能超过这个数字。 B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。 C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。 D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息，以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。 1 / 19
E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧： 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。 2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子，你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。 3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子，那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。 4) 避免重复。在原文中，为了强调某个主题，可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。 5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例： “His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.” 可以概括为：”He was very brave in battle.” “He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.” 可以概括为：“He was in financial difficulties.” 6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子：“Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.” 2 / 19