语言学教程英汉对照

Linguistics

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

1. What is language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

https://www.360docs.net/doc/7c2342543.html,nguage is a system

A basic observation is that each language contains two systems, a system of sound and a system of meaning.

B. Language is arbitrary

The relation between expression and content is not natural but conventional. And this conventional relation varies from language to language.

e.g.

It is called a “老鼠”in Chinese,

while a “rat”or “mouse”in English

C. Language is vocal

The primary medium of language is sound rather than word. written forms came much later than the spoken forms; we speak more everyday; we learn to speak first.

D. Language is symbolic 象征性的

Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas, concepts, objects, etc. that these sounds can refer to are bounded up by convention. 惯例Linguistic units are conventional signs.

E. Language is human-specific

Language is possessed only by human beings, other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages, i.e. they do not manifest such features

as the so-called design features as possessed by human language.

F. Language is for communication

The main and primary function of language is to communicate. People say things to each other to express their communicational needs, and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others.

2. Design features of language

(1) Arbitrariness:任意性

there is no logical connection between meaning and sound.

(2) Duality：双重性

language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.

(3) Creativity：创造性

Language is creative in the sense that users can understand and create sentences they have never heard before.

(4) Displacement：移位性

language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.

（5）Cultural transmission:文化传播

the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.

（6）Interchangeability交换性

any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.

3. Functions of language

（1）Informative信息功能

The use of language to record facts, to state what things are like, and to exchange information.

（2）Interpersonal 人际功能

The most important sociological use of language, which serves to establish and maintain people’s status in a society.

（3）Performative施为功能

Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl)to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.

（4）Emotive情感功能

Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.

（5）Phatic communion寒暄功能

Ritual exchanges, exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.

（6）Recreational 娱乐功能

the use of language to have fun.

（7）Metalingual元功能

Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.

4. four principles for studying linguistics:

（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性

（2）Consistency一致性

（3）Economy经济性

（4）Objectiveness客观性

5. Main branches of linguistics

sound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学

form:morphology形态学syntax句法学

meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学

Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学

Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学

Sociolinguistics社会语言学

Anthropological linguistics人类语言学

Computational linguistics计算机语言学

6. Important distinctions

（1）Descriptive 描述性

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use

（2）prescriptive规定性

If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language

Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive

（3）Synchronic共时性

It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history

（4）Diachronic 共时性

It refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .

（5）Langue言语

It refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks. （6）Parole语言

It refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.

Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, parole

is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.

Langue is abstract, parole is concrete

Langue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person, from situation to situation.

（7）competence 能力

It refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlying 潜在的system of rules in a language.

（8）performance 实行

It refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

1. Speech communication involves three steps:

speech production 产出

speech transmission 传播

speech perception 感知

(1) Segment语段

a linguistic unit in any sequence 顺序which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence no direct correspondence can be established between spelling and pronunciation.

(2)Divergence分化

the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less like each other.

2. IPA: the International Phonetic Association

3.Consonants辅音28

The sounds in the production 生成of which there is an obstruction阻碍of the air-stream气流at some point of the vocal tract 声道

Manners of articulation: 发音方式

(1)Stop 爆破音：[p, b, k, g, t, d]

(2)Nasal 鼻音:[m, n, ?]

(3)Fricative摩擦音：[f, v] [θ, e] [s, z] [?, ?] [ h]

(4)Approximant 浊音：[r, j, w]

(5)Lateral 无擦通音：[ l ]

(6)Affricate 塞擦音：

4.Place of articulation:发音部位

(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p, b, m, w] (2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f, v]

(3)Dental齿音：[θ, e] (4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t, d, n, s, z, l, r] (5)Post alveolar齿槽音：[?, ?] (6)Retroflex卷舌音：[ r ]

(7)Palatal上颚音: [ j ] (8)Velar:软腭音：[k, g, ?]

(9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音

(11)glottal声门音

Consonants can be described by the following three criteria: voicing (whether a consonant is voiceless or voiced), place of articulation, manner of articulation.

e.g.

[ p ] voiceless bilabial stop

[ b ] voiced bilabial stop

[ f ] voiceless labiodental fricative

5.vowels元音

the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the

air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction

The vowels are usually described with reference to the following four criteria:

height; position raised; tenseness (length); lip-rounding

e.g. [ i: ] high front tense unrounded vowel

[ u ] high back lax rounded vowel

[ ?] mid central lax unrounded vowel

6. Coarticulation协同发音

overlapping of adjacent articulations

(1)anticipatory coarticulation:预期协同发音 e.g. team lamb

(2)persevarative coarticulation:持续协同发音e.g. map meat

the sound displaying theinfluence of the preceding sound

7. Nasalization鼻音化

the vowel acquiring some quality of the of the following nasal sound

8. Phoneme:音素

the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.

9. Allophones音位变体

Coarticulation is the phonetic term for the phonological term assimilation.

10. The main suprasegmental features 超音特征

Syllable音节, tone音调, intonation语调, stress重读.

Intonation :

It refers to the change of pitch at sentence level.

Tone:

It refers to the Change of pitch of individual syllables.

Chinese is a typical tone language.

11. The syllable structure

(((C)C)C) V ((((C)C)C)C)

A syllable usually consists of three part: onset, the peak or rhyme and the coda. The vowels

within the rime is the nucleus.

12. Morpheme:词素

the smallest meaningful unit in a language.

Chapter 4 From word to text

1. Syntactic relations句法关系

language as “a system of signs”, each of which consists of two indispensable 不可缺少的parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept).

Syntagmatic relation: 组合关系

relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. (also called horizontal or chain relation)

3. Paradigmatic relation聚合关系

specifically between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. (also called vertical or choice relation)

Grammatical constructions refer to any syntactic constructs that have certain syntactic functions.

4. Immediate constituents

a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.

Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.

5. IC Analysis: the way of analyzing a construction into its immediate constituents.

6. Other shortened form of different phrases or words are as follows:

N = noun A = adjective

P = preposition AP = adjective phrase

V = verb PP = preposition phrase

Det = determiner 限定词art. S = clause

adv = adverb conj = conjuction

7. Three ways of IC Analysis:

(a) bracketing (b) labeled tree diagram

(c) Tree diagram

8. the substitutability: 替代性

whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure still remains the same.

9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions

（1）Endocentric construction 向心结构

It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence相等, to one of its constituents, which servers as the centre, or head, of the whole.

e.g. poor boy

the little match girl

will have finished

the book on the shelf

really very late

Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. The endocentric constructions can be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate construction 主从结构and coordinate construction 并列结构.

Subordinate construction:

It is one in which only one head is dominant and the other constituents dependent. Coordinate construction:

It refers to be all equal in syntactic status, they are independent of each other

（2）Exocentric construction:离心结构

a group of syntactically related words where none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group

The exocentric constructions are usually basic sentences, prepositional phrases, predicate (predicate + object)动宾关系and connective(be + complement) constructions.

10. The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows：

S: NP + VP

VP: V + NP

NP: Det + N

Det: the, a, etc.

N: man, ball, etc.

V: hit, take, etc

Language can be seen as consisting of three parts: syntax句法学, semantics语义学and phonology 音系学.

11. Recursiveness:递归性

It is a phenomenon in which there is no limit to the number of embedding or conjoining one linguistic unit to another unit.

ex:

Xiao Lin’s teacher

Xiao Lin’s teacher’s husband

Xiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parents

Xiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parents’friend ...

12. Conjoining: 连接

It refers to a construction where one clause is conjoined with another. 并列句

Ex:

a. John bought a hat.

b. John’s wife bought a bag.

c. John bought a hat and his wife bought a bag.

13. Embedding: 嵌入

It refers to the process in which a clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 从句

Ex: a. I saw the man.

b. The man visited you last year.

c. I saw the man who had visited you last year.

The sentences can be linked either hypotactically or paratactically.

Chapter 5 Meaning

1.What is semantics?语义学

Specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.

2.Meanings of MEANING

one difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the term “meaning”itself has different meanings.

--- intention

--- inference

--- a translation

3.Kinds of meaning

（1）The traditional approach 通用方法

（2）The pragmatic approach 务实方法

（3）The functional approach: 功能法

4.Seven types of meaning by Leech

(1)Conceptual meaning 概念

A word or phrase can be used to express or evoke a state of mind which is cognitive, in this case the word or phrase expresses conceptual meaning.

Conceptual meaning is central.

5.Distinctions between denotation and connotation:

(1)denotation: 外延

It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes

(2)connotation: 内涵

It refers to the properties of the entity a word denotes

Ex:

human statesman politician denotation any person person who takes up

politics

connotation biped, commendatory derogatory

featherless, rational

Associative meaning 联想

(2) Connotative meaning 内涵

What is implied apart from what is explicitly named or described. It is the subsidiary meaning of a word, usually associated with the nature or properties the word denotes.

e.g.

politician and statesman have different connotative meanings.

(3) Social meaning 社会

What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.

E.g.

Good morning, sir, and Your honor.

(4) Affective meaning 情感

refers to the emotional connotation attached to utterances

E.g.

vagrant vs. homeless.

(5) Reflected meaning 反映

What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.

e.g.

The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,

But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep,

And miles to go before I sleep.

(6)Collocative meaning 搭配

What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

e.g.

black tea vs. black coffee;

a strong horse vs. a strong nation.

(7)Thematic meaning 主题

What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

e.g.

Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore.

Sense refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.

6. Word sense relations

(1)Synonymy同义词

It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.

Some semanticians maintain that there are no real synonyms, that is, no two words have exactly the same meaning.

7. Five types of synonyms:

i. Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词---- synonyms used in different regional dialects British English American English

lift elevator

luggage baggage

lorry truck

petrol gasoline

flat apartment

windscreen windshield

torch flashlight

ii. Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词--- synonyms differing in style

Ex:

Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent

Start, begin, commence

Kid, child, offspring

Kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decrease

iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义

Ex:

collaborator: a person who helps another（劳经）合作者

accomplice: a person who helps another （法律）共犯

iv. Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词

Ex:

Accuse of sb. , charge sb. , rebuke

rotten tomatoes

addled eggs

rancid bacon or butter

sour milk.

v. Semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词程度

amaze: to surprise

(suggesting confusion and bewilderment )

astound: to surprise

(suggesting difficulty in believing )

8. Antonymy 反义词

It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words, and three types of antonymy can

be classified:

(1) gradable antonymy 分级

Cold, cool, lukewarm, warm, hot

(2) complementary antonymy 补充

Alive- dead

(3) converse antonymy 相反

e.g. husband / wife, borrow / lend.

9.Hyponymy上下义关系

Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate, and the lower terms, hyponyms, members of the same class are called

co-hyponyms.

Eg:

In contrast to Chinese, there is only one word in English for the

different kinds of uncles: 伯父、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父。

10. Polysemy 多义词

Different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word.

11. Homonymy同音异义

the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form homophones: 同音异形异义词

two words are identical in sound

rain / reign, night / knight, piece / peace, leak / leek

Homographs: 同形异义词

two words are identical in spelling

bow v. / bow n. tear n. / tear v. lead v. / lead n.

complete homonyms :同形同音异义词(名词动词或形容词性) two words are identical in both sound and spelling

fast adj. / fast v. scale n. / scale v.