英语语言学第二章
Chapter 2
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II. PHONOLOGY
2.1 The phonic medium of language
The linguist is not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. This limited range of sounds is the phonic medium of
language.
2.2 Phonetics
2.2.1 What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which refers to a limited range of speech sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and that have a role to play in linguistic communication. Phonetics has three branches—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and
auditory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics: from speaker’s point of view, how speakers articulate
sounds
Acoustic phonetics: how sound waves travel in the air
Auditory phonetics: from hearer’s po int of view, how hearers perceive sounds
2.2.2 Organs of speech
Pharyngeal cavity
lungs <<<< windpipe <<<< glottis < vocal cords (when they are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration — voiceless sounds; if they are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” ---voiced
sounds.
Oral cavity:
Lips, tongue, teeth, teeth ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvular
[ p ] [ v ] [ s ] [ d ] [ l ] [ k ]
Nasal cavity:
Lungs<<<< windpipe<<< 2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions International Phonetic Alphabet: the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound. Diacritics: a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do. Broad transcription: a set of symbols with each letter representing one sound (used in textbooks, dictionaries, ect) Narrow transcription: letter symbol + diacritics (a set of symbol to show the fine distinctions between sounds) (used by phoneticians for the detailed study of sounds) 2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds The English speech sounds can first of all be classified into vowels and consonants. The basic difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction in the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed. 2.2.4.1 Classification of the English consonants The English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and also in terms of place of articulation. Table 1 Consonants in English In terms of manner of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types: 1) Stops (plosives) the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and the speech sound is produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again. 2) Fricatives The obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point. 3) affricates The obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction as in fricatives. 4) liquids 5) nasals 6) glides (semivowels) According to the place in the mouth where the obstruction occurs, the English vowels can be classified into the following types: 1) bilabials 2) labiodental 3) dental 4) alveolar 5) alveolar-palatal 6) palatal 7) velar 8) glottal 2.2.4.2 Classification of the English vowels 1. Which part of the tongue is raised the highest Pure vowels can be distinguished as front, central, and back according to the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. front vowels central vowels back vowels 2. The openness of the mouth There are open and close vowels. All the rest are either semi-open or semi-close. 3. The shape of the lips. They can be rounded and unrounded. 4. The length of the vowels Tense (long) and lax (short) vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, the larynx is quite relaxed. Individual vowels are also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening. 2. 3 Phonology 2. 3.1 Phonetics and phonology Both phonetics and phonology study the speech sounds. Phonetics is of a general nature: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 2.3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone A phone is a phonetic segment or unit. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistics communication are all phones. One speech sound is one phone. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. Phonemes are abstract. They are not any particular sound, but rather they are realized by a certain phones in certain phonetic contexts. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 第一章 All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。 Language is a means of verbal communication. Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征 Design Features: Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联 系。 1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性 2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。 Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结 构的方法。 3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特 性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合 规则。 Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。 Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 源于二层性和递归性 Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往 时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或 观点。比如现在说孔子。 语言功能： 1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能 2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人 的社会地位，比如仪式。 3) Emotive Function感情功能 4) Phatic communion寒暄功能 5) Recreational Function娱乐功能 《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。 三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。 第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.360docs.net/doc/8d2359512.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is Questions for Chapter 3(Key) 1. Define the following terms: morpheme morphology inflection derivation allomorph bound morpheme free morpheme compound stem affix root grammatical word lexical word closed-class open-class blending acronym clipping back-formation 2. List the bund morphemes in the following words: fearlessly, misleads, previewer, shortened, unhappier -less, -ly, mis-, -s, pre-, -er, -en, -ed, un-, -ier 3. In which of the following examples should the ‘a’ be treated as a bound morpheme? a boy, apple, atypical, AWOL a is treated as a bound morpheme in atypical 4. What are the inflectional morphemes in these expressions? It’s raining; the cow jumped over the moon; the newest style; the singer’s new songs Person inflection: for aspect:rain ing, jump ed, Comparative case: new est, Case: singer’s Number: song s 5. Determine the original term from which the following words were back-formed. (a) burgle burglar (b) enthuse enthusiasm (c) greed greedy (d) automate automation (e) donate donation (f) escalate escalator (g) peddle peddler (h) diagnose diagnosis (i) loaf loafer (j) self-destruct self-destruction (k) attrit attrition (l) hairdress hairdresser (m) drowse drowsy (n) frivol frivolus Chapter one 1.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language. 2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson. Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweet Duality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning. Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, its 2017级英语语言学概论第三章习题 请认真填写学号和姓名。每次答题仅第一次提交有效。 个人信息：[矩阵文本题] * I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. [判断题] * 对 错(正确答案) 3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it. [判断题] * 对 错(正确答案) Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred… Chapter 3 Lexicon 3.1 What is word? 1. What is a lexeme? A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write”is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.” 2. What is a morpheme? A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning. 3. What is an allomorph? An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc. 4. What is a word? A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. 3.1.1 Three senses of “word” 1. A physically definable unit 2. The common factor underlying a set of forms 3. A grammatical unit 3.1.2 Identification of words 1. Stability Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English. 2. Relative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment. 3. A minimum free form This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “th e minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 3.1.3 Classification of words 1. V ariable and invariable words In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings. 2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. 第一章：绪论 1．什么是语言学？ 1．1定义 语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。 1．2语言学的研究范畴: 语言学研究有不同的侧重。对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。 语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。 1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念 1．3．1规定性和描述性 语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”，否则就被冠为“错误的”。 1．3．2共时性和历时性 对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。 1．3．3口头语和书面语 现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的记录。从交际的功能来看，人们交际主要采取口头形式。此外，即使是在当今世界，仍然有不少语言只有口头形式，没有笔头形式。所以语言学研究的语料应从口头语中采集。传统语法学家过分重视笔头语料，轻视口头语料。 1．3．4语言和言语 语言和言语的区别是瑞士语言学家索绪尔在20世纪初提出来的。语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统，是一个语言社区所有的人应该遵守的一套约定俗成的规则，它相 《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1?=15?) II．判断(15×1?=15?) III．填空(10×1?=10?) IV．术语解释(5×2? =10?) V．简答题(4×5? =20?) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： 1. Linguistics语言学 The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. 2. design features设计特点 They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. 3. Displacement移位 Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. 4. Duality二元性 It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. 5. Arbitrariness任意性 It is generally the case that there is no …natural? connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. 6. Manner of articulation发音方法 It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. 7. Place of articulation发音部位 It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. 8. articulatory phonetics发音语言学 The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or …articulated? is articulatory phonetics. 9. Phonology音系学 The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. 10. Assimilation同化 It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or …copied? by the other. For example, the word …can? in the sentence …I can go.?may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. 11. Back-formation逆构法，逆序构词 A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word …donation? first came into use and then the verb …donate? was created from it. 第2章英语语音 Ⅰ.Fill in the following blanks: 1.The sound/p/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2007研）【答案】voiceless 【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。 2.The sound/b/can be described with“_____,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2004研）【答案】voiced 【解析】/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。 3.Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel.And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of_____and manner of articulation.（北二外2004研） 【答案】place 【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。 4._____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.（中山大学2006研） 【答案】Consonants 【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全 被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。 5.The present system of the_____derives mainly from one developed in the1920s by the British phonetician,Daniel Jones(1881—1967),and his colleagues at University of London.（中山大学2008研） 【答案】cardinal vowels 【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。 6.Phonetic similarity means that the_____of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.（中山大学2011研） 【答案】allophones 【解析】语音的相似性指一个音位的音位变体必须具备某些语音相似性。 7.The sound/k/can be described with“voiceless,_____,stop”.（北二外2003研）【答案】velar 【解析】/k/是清音，软腭音，爆破音。 8._____transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds,including the minute shades.（北二外2004研） 【答案】Narrow 【解析】当我们用复杂的符号精确地标记语音所有可能的细小变化时，我们称之为“严式转英语语言学总结
英语语言学讲解
英语语言学笔记讲解
语言学教程第三章重点
语言学第一章整理
英语语言学概论第三章习题及答案
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第五章笔记和习题
语言学第三章
英语语言学第一章第二章
《英语语言学》答案完整版
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(章节题库 第2章 英语语音)【圣才出品】