语言学定义

1.Cohort model交股模型model for he perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It assumes a “recognition lexicon" in which each word is represented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully activated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.

2. Cohort theory:it refers to hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.

3. Interactive model交互模型It holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There interactivity in the form of lexical effect on the perception of sublexical units. In certain case, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to hear phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.

4.Construal识解The ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways (through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point figure- ground segregation )

5.Construal operations识解操作Are conceptualizing process used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and reasons employed in the interpretation of linguistic expression.

6.Figure- ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the propositional object and the proposition expressing the spatial relation configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects.

7. Trajector射体means a moving or dynamic figure.8. Landmark路标means the ground provided for a moving figure.

9. Basic level category: is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interaction with subjects in the real world is stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category10. Subordinate level 下属层次Is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.11. Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.12.Conceptual Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another13.Blending theory；also known as the integration theory, A cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “mental space” are integrated via projection into a new, blended space which has its unique structure.

14.SPEAKING交际民族学的研究模式A mnemonic way of summarizing certain components of speech which make possible for the description and analysis of communication behavior: situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key instrumentalities, norms and genres.15 Speech community言语社团A group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.

16 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesi: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and different languages may probably express our unique way of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.

17 linguistic relativity语言相对性similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity-----a view which “was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt”. 18 linguistic determinism is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world

19 The strong version of the theory:refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.20 The weak version :is modified type of its original theory , suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-culture differences thus produced in our way of thinking are relatives, rather than categorical.

21 Pidgin 皮钦语Is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes.

22 Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language.

23 Diglossia双言制First used by Ferguson. Two distinctive varieties of the same languages are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. It is a matter of formality in nature.24Bilingualism双语现象In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each other having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.

25Speech act theory: “Speech act theory” was proposed by John Austin and has been developed by his student J. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only us ed to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, and to perform acts. While making an utterance, a speaker is performing three acts simultaneously: an illocutionary act, an illocutionary act, and a perlocutionary act.

26 illocutionary act言内行为the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the act of saying something: the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 27 illocutionary act言外行为the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention. The making of a statement, offer promise, etc, in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it. The act of using a sentence to perform a function such as command, request, etc

28 Perlocutionary act言后行为the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it's the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something, the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances. the results or effects that are produced by means of saying sth.

29Constative叙事话语Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and constatives bearing the truth-value.30 Performative行事Are statements used to perform an action, it has no truth value.

31 conversational implicature会话含义the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle. Is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the cp and its maxims.

32the cooperative Principle( cp)合作原则Make your contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged. Proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.

33 Entailment 蕴含This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the first.34 Presupposition预设Is that shared background information. In essence, presupposition is a pragmatic notion, because it is the speaker who presupposes by means of an utterance, rather than the sentence or the utterance itself.35 Ostensive communication明示推理交际From the speaker’s side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear one’s intention to express something. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer.

36Relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have. ?Relevance is a comparative concept, so they also have an extent-conditions format:

?Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual efforts in this context are large.

Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small

37 Euphemism: A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.

38 Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The

distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.

39 language planning: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.

40 standard language : The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, in-cluding school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.

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