英语语言学概论第八章笔记
社会语言学
1.? 什么是社会语言学？
.
社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
2.语言变异
a)言语社区
, . . ( ), . , , . , .
社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。分离出来用于任何特定研究的社会群体称作言语社区。因而，言语社区就被定义为一个社区（人数小到一个家庭，大到一个国家）使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。言语社区的重要特点是，这个群体的成员必须以某种适当的方式与其他的社区成员进行语言交流。这些成员不仅可能对语言规范持相同态度，而且可能使用紧密联系的语言变体。
言语社区的范畴可以是地域性的，也可以是跨地区的。社会地位、经济地位、受教育程度、兴趣爱好、职业、年龄等因素相同的人所使用的语言往往带有相同言语社区的烙印。
b)言语变体
. , , , , . , , , , , , . , , .
, , , , , . , , .
在社会环境中使用的语言都属于某种言语变体。一种言语变体具有一些与其它言语变体不同的特征。这些特征反映在发音、句法规则、词汇上。言语变体可以指一种不同的语言，如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体、正式语体等。言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之分。
c)地域变异
. .
语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。
. . .
语言地域变异的最显著特征是地域口音。由于口音差异给跨地区的交流造成理解上的困难，推广标准化的运动便应运而生。
d)社会变异
, , , .
语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。
e)文体变异
: .
有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异：言语情景即在什么情况下，为了什么目的，谁与谁讲什么。
’ , , . ’ , , ., ’, ’ .
根据交际情景的类型，一个人的口头语和书面语的文体会发生变化，变异区间是从随便文体或口语体到正式文体或文雅文体。文体风格也可以指一个人一直在使用的口头语或书面语，或指在一个特定的时期内的说话或写作方式，如狄更斯的风格、海明威的风格。
f)个人言语变异
, , . .
一个人在说话时，他在一种特定语言的总的体系内表达，但他实际上所说出的是他自己的独特的语言体系。这种个人方言被称为个人习语。
, , , , , . , ’ , , ’ .
因此，个人习语是说话者的个人方言，它以这样或那样的方式综合了涉及地域变异、社会变异和文体变异的各方面的特征。从比较狭窄的意义上来说，个人方言也包括音质、音调、言语节奏这样的因素。这些因素都构成了个人言语中的可识别特征。
3.
, . , , , .
标准语是一种享有最高社会地位的语言变体，通常以在一个国家的政治、文化中心地区受过教育的本族语的口语和书面语为基础。标准语为政府和司法部门采用，也用于新闻媒介、文学作品、正式的讲话或写作、正规教育以及对非本族语者的外语教育。
.
许多国家的标准语同时被指定为全国语或官方语。
, , .
不同于标准语的变体叫做非标准语，其发音、语法和词汇明显有别于公认的标准。
.
标准语和非标准语无优劣之分。
4.双言与双语现象
a)双言现象
, . , , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , .
双言现象并存于同一语言社区、用途各不相同的语言变体，通常其中一种被视为高层次变体，具有文言文的特征，另一种则为口语式的低层次变体。高层次变体用于正式场合和书面语，低层次变体用于口头交谈。高层次变体多用于政府机关、大众传媒、教育部门、宗教团体等。低层次变体常见于家庭成员或朋友之间的交谈，也被高身份者用以对低身份者发布指示等。
b)双语现象
. , , .
. , . .
双语现象指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。双语现在在移民群体中（尤其是第二代移民中）较为普遍。双语现象也出现在一些指定了两种官方语的国家。然而理想的双语现象是不常见的。双语者通常具有可以在两种语言之间自由切换、交替使用的能力。
5.少数民族方言
a)黑人英语――少数民族方言个案研究
. . “ ”, . , . , .
黑人英语是英语的一种变体，使用者多为身处社会下层的美国黑人。将黑人英语视为劣等英语是一种基于种族歧视的社会观，与语言学观相悖。黑人英语的语音、形态、句法和词汇系
“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
英语语言学笔记讲解
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.360docs.net/doc/ab14571209.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
英语语言学概论复习
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）； 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原 320240*********
英语语言学概论笔记
Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义 The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。 2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence. Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another. 所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的，在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中，词汇和语法规则有的消亡了，有的诞生了，有的是外借的，有的则转化了其意义或功能。 尽管语言变化是普遍的，必然的，有时甚至是显著的，但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程，其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。 语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。 3.Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段 b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段 c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段 Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak. 大多数现代英语的使用者发现，对于他们来说，中古英语只能部分地被理解，古英语则如外语一般，简直不可理解。 Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解-第6~8章【圣才出品】
第6章语用学 6.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Speech act theory 言语行为理论 2. Cooperative principle and its maxims 合作原则及其准则 3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature 格莱斯会话含义理论 本章考点： 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。 本章内容索引： I. Pragmatics 1. Definition 2. Pragmatics vs. semantics 3. Context 4. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
II. Speech act theory 1. Austin’s model of speech acts 2. Searle’s classificati on of speech acts 3. Indirect speech acts III. Principle of conversation 1. Cooperative Principle and its Maxims 2. Violation of the Maxims IV. Conversational Implicature 1. Definition 2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature (1) Calculability. (2) Cancellability (3) Non-detachability (4) Non-conventionality. V. Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure I. Pragmatics（语用学） 【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】 1. Definition（定义） It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 它是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
英语语言学概论-简答题
1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of