语言学概论考试复习资料.docx

Language is a system of arbitrary,vocal symbols used for human communication. Impoilant f eatures that are typical of the nature of human language: Language is systematic/symbolic/arbitrary/primarily vocal/human specific/used for communication Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic study of language?

General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language?Metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use. Metafunctions of language: ideational/interpersonal/textual function

Seven general functions of language: physiological/phatic/recording/identifying/reasoning/communicatin/pleasure function Sounds arc units which combine to make words or parts of words.

Signs,three major types:Icon(We say a sign is an icon when an object and its sign are related to each other by a physical resemblance. eg. a photo that is taken of a video cassette) Indcx(A sign is called an index when an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity.eg. in the case of thunder and lighting, thunder is an index.)Symbol(If a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol.eg, traffic lights, wedding rings, national flags.)

The origin of language: creation, evolution, invention Language families: Genetic Classification, Typological Classification Some important distinctions in linguistics: langue and parole, prescriptive and descriptive, synchronic and diachronic, speech and writing, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, competence and performance, functionalism and formalism

The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language?

The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.

Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative tcrms(foot as opposed to feet). Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences?

Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract fornial relations. Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors?

Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds?Phonology is the study of sound patterning?Semantics is the study of meanin g?use of linguistics: pragmatics, anthropological lingustics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguistics

All vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: d，b，g，q,、，

six plosives: p,b,t,d,k, g three nasals: m,n, rj eight fricatives: f,v，0, 6，s,z，J, 3

Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. However, vowels are more difficult than consonants to describe articulatorily? According to Sloat et al (1978:10-11), the primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: (1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth and (2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips. 分类：1 分为close/ open / low/ high vowels

2 分为vowels with tongue retraction are called back vowels /Vbwels made with the tongue body extended to toward the front of the oral cavity are called front vowels

另一种分类：

Vowels may be subdivided into monophthongs and diphthongs. 单元音和双元音

2.1.3 Characteristics of English Speech Sounds

元咅和4甫咅：Like other languages, English has both vowels and consonants. As we have discussed, vowels are produced by shaping the oral cavity through which air from the lungs is allowed to flow more or less freely. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

English has many vowel sounds? According to Roach (1991)，there arc seven short vowels、five long vowels，eight diphthongs and five triphtho ngs.

eia, ais, oia, sua, aua

Consonants arc usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have twenty-four consonants?

音标2.1.4 The Transcription of Sounds

音标字母：A phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the fonn of segments, or individual speech sounds like [p], [s] or [m]. 标音

法：A phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on pape匚

国际音标：The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol.

The sounds symbols allow us to represent many nuances of articulation. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad tTanscription .

严式音标[]A transcription records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording is called a narrow transcription.

宽式音标〃A transcription that omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation is called a broad transcription. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. Thus, the term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language?

Phoneme is minimal meaningful linguistic unit.(Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzablc into smaller units.In Sloat et al's definition, each lexical entry includes, along with information about the semantic and syntactic nature of the morpheme, an underlying representation. The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.)(distinctive sounds) However, a phoneme may have its variants. These phonetic variants of a phoneme arc known as allophones.

A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. In other words, when two different fbnns arc identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.

区别性特征2.2.3 Distinctive Features

Every language has a limited number of phonological oppositions. In order to find out these oppositions, distinctive features can be use to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown either present [+] or absent [-].

? Tongue Body Features ? The Features Rounded ? The Features High and Back in Consonants ? Manner Features

We can also use features such as voicedness, tenseness, and place of articulation to describe a number of speech sounds?语音模式：2.3 Sound Patterns

Sound patterns refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the pennissible arrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting, or changing sounds?

Sequential Constraints:All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints.However, it is not difficult to show that speakers have knowledge of such sequential rules. Another sequential constraint in English pertains to clusters (one or more consonants) of nasal consonants followed by nonnasal (oral) stops within words. There arc restrictions on the order in which sounds can occur in a given language? The permissible orders arc generally quite limited. The simplest and most natural arrangement is the alternation of consonants and vowels in the pattern ^consonant- vowel- consonant- vowel...11. Every syllable begins with a single consonant and ends with a vowel.

4 Another common constraint is that every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment?

When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they arc said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s)?

即是语位变体：According to Wardhaugh (1977:65), phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of a single phoneme?

Although the occurrence of sounds in complementary distribution is a prerequisite to these sounds being allophones of one and the same phoneme, this is not the sole condition □ T he other necessary condition to be met is the criterion of phonetic similarity. The sounds in complementary distribution must be phonetically similar to each other for them to be regarded as allophones of one and the same phoneme. This latter condition is not met in the example of [h] and 〔引，which are subsequently considered to belong to separate phonemes. Suprasegmental Features： Syllable /Stress /Pitch/ Intonation and Tone

Phonetically, the syllable consists of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound? According to Roach (1991:67), a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation?

Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence? In other words, a syllable that is more prominent than the other syllables in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. In many languages, including English, some syllables within a word are relatively more prominent than

others.

Stress is a conventional label for the overall prominence of certain syllables relative to others within a linguistic system? It represents the total effect of factors such as pitch, loudness, and duration.

Some words may have a primary stress and one or more than one secondaiy stresses.

However, no word has more than one primary stress. English syllables seem to be stressed by a combination of raised pitch and increased loudness and length.

When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one of the syllables receives greater stress than all others? Only one of the vowels in a phrase or sentence receives primary stress. All the other stressed vowels are reduced to secondaiy stress. According to Clark and Yallop (1990:287), patterns of stress are highly important in a language such as English.

Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound? The relationship between pitch and fundamental frequency is nonlinear and varies with the frequency involved?

In many languages, some syllables or vowels are produced with a change in pitch, more loudly, and longer than other vowels in the word or sentence. They are referred to as stressed. Pitch patterns are essentially either steady, rising or falling .

Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. By means of intonation, syllables arc grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences? In English a phrase usually has one or two different terminations. The most common phrasal intonation ends on a falling pitch; the other ends on a more or less level pitch?

分类：As noted by Sloat et al (1978:76?78), intonation serves several functions in verbal communication. Grouping of Words /Emphasizing Words / Differentiating Meanings

单词分组.Grouping of Words

First, intonation contours may indicate the possible groupings of words in phrases, resulting in different meanings of these phrases. In the following two phrases, the first one means a boys1 school that is small, while the second means a school for small boys?强调单词.EmDhasizing Words

Intonation may also serve to emphasize a certain word within a phrase or sentence. The first of the following sentences has a neutral intonation contour. The second has higher pitch on one word than would normally be expected. That word therefore takes on special importance in the sentence? Thus, the second sentence means John only kissed Mary. He did not do anything else to her

意义区分?Differentiating Meanings

Furthemiore, in English, the same sentence may mean quite different things when spoken with different intonations. For the most part declarative sentences terminate with a falling pitch and questions requiring a yes or no answer terminate on a rising pitch. Exclamations are often characterized by a high pitch throughout.

音调：Tone refers to pitch variations .In some languages, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches? The function of tone is quite different from that of stress. Tones do not mark the beginning and ending of words, nor do they even indicate to the speaker how many words there are in an utterance.

声调语占：Languages that use pitch in this way arc called tone languages?

语音语调注册：Tone languages with the majority of syllables maintaining the same level or register are called register tone languages ?

纯音单音：Register tones and falling and rising tones are called simple tones?

声调轮廓：Tones that rise, fall or change direction within a syllabic arc called contour tones.

The four characteristics of a word: 1A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2A word is symbolic.3Words are part of the large communication system we call language.4Words can help human beings interact culturally with one another.

How to identify a word:lFirst, to recognize its series of meaningfully separable sound segments or letters in the stream of speech in the written tcxt.2Sccond, to recognize the accumulated experiences with which its sound segments or letters arc associated.3Third, to recognize its fimetion in a sentence or an utterance as it works grammatically with other words.4Lastly, to relate words to the social and cultural context in which they are uttered so as to figure out the speaker's intention or illocutionary force?

A preposition is a word used with the prepositional complement(which is characteristically a noun phrase, a pronoun, a nominal wh?clause, or a nominal-ing clause) to show its grammatical connection with another part of the sentence.

A pronoun is a word in place of a noun or a noun phrase? A conjunction is a word that connects parts of sentences or phrases? A

noun is the name of an object, a happening and an idea. A full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is，does, or experience.

A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semantic meaning. The different variants of a morpheme arc called allomorphs?Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes according to whether they can be used independently as free forms or not. If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself it is called a free morpheme. If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound?

The best known definition of word is given by Bloomfield, who defines a word as “a minimum free fdrnV\ that is9 the smallest form that can occur by itself. English words can be classified into closed class, open class and two lesser categories and words of unique function. Closed class includes: preposition，pronoun, determiner^ conjunction, modal verb，primary verb

A determiner refers to an item which determines the references of a noun phrase in the linguistic or contextual context.

Modal verbs like can, could, may, might, must, need, dare, will, would, shall, should .etc. cannot function independently as predicate verbs. They should go with the base fomi

Primary verbs like be, have, do cannot function independently as predicate verb in the clause?

Open class includes: Nouns, Full verbsAdjectives，Adverbs

A full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is, does, or experiences? Full verbs can be further divided transitive (put, give) and intransitive verbs (arrive)?

Speak: either transitive or intransitive Regular full verbs: work, have four morphological forms.

Irregular full verbs: a verb like undergo has five, cast has only three whereas the primary verb be has as many as eight.

The two lesser categories are numerals 数次(cardinal numerals 基数词and ordinal numerals 序数词)and interjections 感叹词. Numerals are words that denote numbers or the order.

Interjections are words or phrases used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings, such as exclamation, sorrow, surprise, regret There are also a number of words of unique function, like the negative particle not and the infinitive marker to.

Open class: we can add new words to these classes? E.g. cybernation(n), stonewall(v), clone(v), biodestnictible(adj), weatherwise(adv) and salewise(adv).

Closed class: prepositions, relatives 关系词，auxiliary verb 助动词,the linking verb 系动词/o be, pronouns and other pro-verbs.

A pro-form 替代形式is a word or expression used as a substitute for another fbrm.

A pro?verb is a verb form like do or do so which is used as the substitute of a verb phrase, usually for the sake of avoiding an undesired repetition in the clause?

According to their variability, words can also be classified into variable 易变的and invariable 不变的words.

Variable words can take inflectional ending and thus have ordered and regular series (called paradigm) of grammatically different word forms.

Invariable words do not take inflectional 曲折变化的endings?

English has the least variable words. In modern English, only a few lexical categories, including nouns, verbs, gradable 可分类的adjectives and adverbs, have paradigms 范例as follows:

N: book books boy's V: work works working worked Adj/Adv fast faster fastest

According to where they denote lexical or grammatical meanings, words fall into two categories: lexical words 词V匚词and grammatical words 语法词.

①Nouns, pronouns, full verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals always denote objects, happenings, ideas, their properties and other lexical meanings and thus are generally labeled as lexical words or content words?

②Conversely, conjunctions, prepositions, primary verbs and modal auxiliaries, inteijections and particles denote one grammatical meaning or another and arc thus called grammatical words or function

However, lexical words and grammatical words are closely related?The syntactic criteria for assigning words to lexical categories very often rely on specific types of grammatical function words. For example, nouns can be preceded by a definite the or indefinite article a(n), and the function of the article is to indicate what the noun refers to is either more or less specific. Such words present problems of segmentation 分害山different in degree or in kind? These words included 1) the irregular plurals like men, mice, children, oxen, sheep, deer, etc.; (2) the past form and/or -ed participle of certain verbs like went, came, took, cut, etc.; (3) the irregular comparatives and superlatives like better, best, further, furthest.

Allomorphs 语素变体:can be phonologically or morphologically conditioned? ed 发咅When the selection of an allomorph is determined by the lexical form of the base word with which it is combined, it is moq?hologically-conditioned. Examples include: irregular plurals: oxen, children, sheep, deer, geese, feet the past form of certain verbs: went,took, bought, cut the -ed participle of certain verbs: gone, taken,bought, cut

Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes 自由词素and bound morphemes 黏着词素according to whether they can be used independently as free forms or not.

If a morpheme can constitute a word(free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room, bottle.standjarge.

If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound, like tin- in unlucky and the plural 一s in bags?

A bound morpheme is also called an AFFIX in the sense that it is always added to another morpheme.

The stem 词干can be a free morpheme?Boy in boys, boyhood,boyish?Affixes can be further divided into prefixes 前缀，suffixes 后缀and infixes 中缀. Prefix可能改变单词意思un?, mono?,mini-,bi?,macro-,也可能只是改变语法意义cn- Most suffixes have two functions: to add some grammatical meanings to the stem -s or change its grammatical categories -ly -fill.

一种也不变的：n+ly->n daily, monthly

n+lul->n mouthful, handful

Some affixes Jikc the suffix YC，may denote different lcxical/grammar meanings:

Employee; escapee(a person who has escaped);refugee;standee

Bound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide the lexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.

①An inflectional morpheme 曲折词素provides further grammatical infbnnation about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix.

② A derivative morpheme 派生词素refers to one that creates an entirely new word? It may take the form of a prefix or a suffix.

3.3inflcction and word?fbimation

Inflection 曲折refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language?

Compared with other Indo-European languages, Modem English has relatively f^vv inflectional morphemes, including:

the plural {s} the third-person singular {s}

the -ing participle {ing} the past form and past participle {ed}

the comparative {er} the superlative {est}

the genetive case {5s} (as in "the girfs doll") the feminine gender {ess} (as in "actress”)

Compounding

Refers to the process of conjoining two or more tree morphemes to fomi a new word.

Semantic features 语义特征

When two or more free morphemes arc combined into a compound, a new meaning arise, which is in most eases no longer a simple combination of the meanings of the component elements.

Greenhouse ->not necessarily green in color

Orthographic Matures 平面特征

Most compound words are either hyphenated 带有连字符的or completely conjoined 联合的，like ^rass-blacle, grass-plot, grassland and grasshopper.

Phonological features 语音特征

The stress of compound noun usually falls on the first constituent morpheme?

Grammatical features 语法特征

Compound words have special internal structures, which are normally unacceptable in free phrases.

Normally do not take comparative and superlative fbrms 无比较级牙口最高级?Plural marker always fall on the last component, as in flowerpots, conveyor belts, daughters-in-law and women doctors.

Derivation根据词源发展而來

3?Conversion转化(词性转化，多半是一个词素的单词)

Abbreviation 缩写

Clipping (等同于cutting)

Blending 组合

Back formation 逆构词(onomatopoeia 拟声,象声法)

Neolozism 新词(也称new coinage)

Borrowing 夕卜来词

Analogy and contrast 类比和对比

Lexeme 词位：A lexeme is an abstract unit and thus may occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts.

The verb lexeme speak may take five forms: speak, speaks, speaking, speak, spoken.

Homonyms 同形同音异义词：lexical items which sound the same but differ in grammatical and lexical meanings. Collocation 搭配：refers to the acceptable combination between individual lexical items.

Four kinds of rules govern or restrict the selection of lexical items allowable to co-occur:

Rules of the first kind are logical, which arise from the extra-linguistic world.(break this rule leads to false or contradictoiy utterances) When talk about football, we may expect the occurrence of verbs like garb, rebound, sink and shoot.

Rules of the second this kind are semantic, which are generally language-specific.(break this rule produce semantically unacceptable utterances)

Dog may take adj. like devoted, intelligent, brave, considerate and lovely.

Rules of the third kind are lexical, which apply only to the expressional aspect and so relate to the choice of words or the co-occurrence of lexical items of one category with those of anothe匸

We say take a walk instead of make a walk?

Rules of the last kind arc grammatical.

Abide by,adhere to,remind ...of....restrain from

Phrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation are referred to as IDIOMS. English idioms have two characteristics: (a) semantic unity 语义的统一性and (b) structural stability 结构的稳定性.These two characteristics distinguish an idiom from a free phrase. According to its grammatical functions and internal structure, an idiom may fiinction as a verb、noun、adjective or adverb ?

Proverb is often a short sentence that people quote and use to give advice and state some general human life experience and problem?Proverbs can also be one kind of idioms.

Constituents arc structural units, i.c. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.

Ultimate constituents are the minimal grammatical elements, of which the sentence is composed?

Immediate constituents: After a sentence is cut into constituent elements, the two parts that are yielded are called xx.

The advantage of IC analysis(Immediate Constituent Analysis) lies in its function that shows not only linear relationship, but also hierarchical ones?

A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions arc divided into two types: cndoccntric constructions and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents? A word or a group of words act as a definable center or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole. There is no definable center or head inside the group?“Definable，' here behaves like an attribute in the construction. Endocentric construction can further be divided into two types: subordination and coordination. If only one immediate constituent is of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the subordinating type. If both constituents are of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the coordinating type.

A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.

A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more connected and coordinate thoughts ?

A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts, one of which is the main or principal thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts?

Seven basic clause types of English: SV,SVO,SVC,SVA,SVOO,SVOC,SVOA(subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial) Declaratives are sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the verb.

Interrogatives arc sentences that arc fonnally marked in one of two ways: either yes-no interrogatives with the operator placed before the subject or wh-interrogatives with the interrogative wh-clcmcnt positioned initially.

Imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form. Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order. Four classes of discourse functions: Statements are primarily used to convey infonnation, questions are primarily used to seek information of a specific point, directives arc primarily used to instruct somebody to do something, exclamations arc primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker feel about or is impressed by something.

Assertion, prediction and apology are pragmatic categories that indicate how sentences are used in actual utterances? Five functional categories of clause constituents: subject,verb,https://www.360docs.net/doc/c96173657.html,plement and adverbial.Subject refers to the noun which serves as the doer or agent of the agent.The grammatical subject in English can govern the predicate in terms of person,number,and tense, and can be checked by a tag?qucstion.Thc predicate is what is said about the subject. Object is the non-subjcct argument of a transitive verb. A transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object and an intransitive verb is one that does not.

Category in syntax usually refers to classes and functions.A syntactic category refers to a word, a phrase or a clause that performs a particular grammatical function, such as subject in a sentence. Primary grammatical categories: Parts of speech Secondary grammatical categories:numbcr, gender, tense, mood, case, person,concord,government.Funcional catrgories: subject, predicate, object. Number is a grammatical category for the analysis of such contrasts as singular and plural of certain word classes?Gender demonstrates such contrasts as masculine, feminine and neuter, animate and inanimate,etc. for the analysis of certain word classes?The case category is often used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. The forms of words can be restricted by grammatical categories through concord or agreement and through government The category of tense has to do with time-relations and relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance.

Semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning in language?

The referential theory holds that a linguistic sign derives its meaning from that which refers to something in the reality.(This theory, however, fails to meet the folloing two challenges. Firstly, some linguistic signs, like God, ghost, dragon, unicorn, merely denote something imaginative. If they should have any referents, these referents only exist in the minds of their believers? Secondly, some entities or concepts are hypothesized and so may be contrary to the actual reality. For example, our knowledge of the current social-political reality of France tells us that the referent of the nominal phrase the King of France in The King of France is bald. is nonexistent, but this does not prevent us from taking this sentence as meaningful.)

The representational theory holds that language in general and words in particular arc only an icon (or representation) for an actual thing(or form)bcing symbolized.(In other words, they conjure in our minds pictures of the things, happenings and ideas? This suggests that there is one kind of “natural" resemblance or relationship between words and the things represented by them.

For the most part, this seems to happen. But there are a number of function words, such as a, an, the, or which "conjure7' no pictures of this kind. Another problem with this theory is ambiguity.)

The definition theory(Howcvcr, semantic analysis is more complicated than attaching definitions to linguistic expressions? As noted by Saeed, the definition theory is faced with three challenges? The first is the problem of circularity. Since all the definitions are given in words, this process might never end. The second is the question of whether linguistic knowledge(about the meaning of words) is different from encyclopaedic knowledge (about the way the world is), for the meanings of words exist in the minds of native speakers of the language. Meaning is a kind of knowledge. The third is the problem of the contribution of context to meaning. When you way

It's getting late to a friend at a party you may mean "Let's leave.It seems impossible to fit all the relevant contextual information into our definitions.)

Leech's seven types of meaning: 1 Conceptual meaning(also called denotative or cognitive meaning. This refers to the definition

given in the dictionary.+-) 2Associarive meaning refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning, which can be further divided into following five types:(§)Connotative meaning(This is the communicative value attributed to an expression over and above its purely conceptual meaning, woman)④Social meaning(This refers to what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use, including variations like dialect, time, topic, and style.)? Affective meaning(This is what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer towards the listener/reader/and /or what her or she is talking about, idiot)⑥Collocative meaning(This refers to what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word ? pretty and handsome)7Thematic meaning(This is what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in tenns of order and emphasis? donate car)

Allan distinguishes three kinds of meaning: 1 sense, the property of meaning in abstract categories such as sentence, lexeme, and morpheme.2dcnotation, the use of sense in speaking of some particular worldj.e.the people, things, places,events5states,etc.within

it;3the utterance meaning, what the hearer rationally determines that the speaker intends his or her meaning to convey. Sense is common basis for determining other kinds of meaning.

Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. lLexical ambiguity (The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the meaning of the single word.bank bear)

2Structural ambiguity(The multiple meaning of the utterance depends on the sentence struture. Flying kites can be

dangerous,negation) Ways of disambiguation 1 to locate an ambiguous expression and related it to the context. 2 to employ some lexical and/or grammatical devices to alter the linguistic context 3stresses and other phonological devices can also help Three approaches to meaning: the traditional approach, the functional approach, the pragmatic approach

Semantic Field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one anothe匸Semantic field theory is based on three premises. IThe meaning of an individual word is dependent upon the meaning of the rest of the words of the same lexical or conceptual field. 2 An individual lexical field is constmcted like a mosaic with no gaps. The whole set of all lexical fields of a language reflects a self-contained picture of reality. 3 If a single word undergoes a change in meaning, then the whole structure of the lexical field changes? Consequently, the isolated historical study of words can be superseded by the study of lexical fields- The semantic field theory enables us to make two inferences. 1 A number of words in a language can constitute a semantic field dominated by a single common concept.(flower) 2 Words belonging to the same semantic field are interdependent and inter-restricted in semantic meaning? Consequently, the definition of the meaning of a word is dependent upon its semantic relations with the other words in the same semantic field.(cousin) Groups of words are then listed under each of these headings? Thesauri of this kind are useful to writing, translating and speaking.

Semantic relations: Synonymy and Antonymy, Meronymy and Hyponymy, Polysemy and Homonymy Synonymy:words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonmous? In other words, synonyms are words or expressions that share common semantic features.True synonyms are rare. In most cases, synonyms may differ in one or more of the following aspects: Difference in origin/the shades of meaning/socio-expressive meaning/stylistic mcaning/collocation and distribution.

Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. When two or more lexemes or expressions are “opposite" in meaning, they are said to be antonyms. 1 Complementary antonyms(Non-gradable antonyms) (dead, alive; single, married; male, female; wisdom, foolishness;war,peace;friendliness,hostility;support,oppose;pass,fail;hit,miss;early,late;up?down;gently,violently) 2Gradable antonyms (hot,cold;love,hate;light,heavy;beautiful,ugly;wide9narrow) 3 relational opposites (lend, borrow; wife, husband; student, teacher; father,son;buy,scll;tcachjcam;givc,takc;abovc,bclow;in front of,behind)

Meronymy is a tenn used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items(roottrunkbranchleaf are meronyms of atree)co-?Hyponymy is used to refer to a spccific-gcncral semantic relationship between lexical

items.(dog,cat Jivcstock)(supcrordinatc,co-?)

Polysemy When a single lexeme has several meanings, it is called polysemic? Polysemy can be said to be the result from the change of meaning.(board)

Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or morphological shape have different meanings. Homographs refer to words which arc written in the same way but differ in meaning and sometimes in pronunciation or derivation.(lead) Homophones are words with identical pronunciation but with different spellings and meanings.(I,eye) Homonyms can also be divided into full homonyms(like bank, punch), where all of the lexeme's associated word forms are identical in pronunciation or spelling, and partial hornonyms (like find, found), where part of their word forms is identical. Three reasons may account for the appearance of homonyms. 1 Diverging meaning development(flower,flour) 2Converging sound development(bear) 3 Shortening of words(rock) Two criteria distinguish polysemy andhomonymy:the first criterion is that of etymology,the second criterion is relatedness ofineaning

?

In general, the meanings of a polsem have one or more of the following logical relations between them: generalization, specification^ substantiation^ abstraction^ metaphor.

Three kinds of intersentential semantic relations: entailment^ presupposition and implicature.

An entailment refers to something that logically follows what is asserted in the utterance? A sentence p entails a sentence q when the truth of the first (p) guarantees the truth of the second (q), and the falsity of the second (q) guarantees the falsity of the first (p). Stcpl: If p is true, then q is also true? Step 2: If q is false, then p is also false. Step3: Then p entails q.(p I saw a boy. q I saw a child.) When two (or more) sentences mutually entail each other, we may call them paraphrases? An utterance may have more than one entailment. If p is inconsistent with q, that is, if p is true, q is false; if q is true, p is false.(Jack is married to Mary. Jack is a bachelor) A presupposition in semantics refers to what is assumed by the speaker and/or assumed by him or her to be known to the hearer

before he or she makes the utterance? Step 1: If p is true, then q is true. Step2: If p is false, then q is still true? Step3: If q is true, then p

could be either true or false.(p Mary's dog is barking, q Mary has a dog.)

Implicature: In communicative practice, the speaker may use an utterance to imply further infonnation. He or she may imply what heor she does not literally mean. Such information is called implication.(M匚Jones seldom dines at the restaurant.

Mr. J ones sometimes dines at the restaurant. Don't you think...Would you please...Can you tell me the time? Well, the milkman

has come.) Morphology：

从两个维度来讲：Means of word formation + process of word format!on

例女U： smog: 1) blending 2) smog= smoke + fog

构词法包括：Compounding+ Derivation+ Conversion+ Abbreviation+ Back formation+ Neologism+ Borrowing+ Analogy +contrast

1)Compo unding 例女口：Sun day二sun +day; Mon day=m oon +day

2)Derivati on (派生)例女口：an tislavery, devitalize, r obo tics, non assertive

3)Conversion)词性变换)

4)Abbreviation

包括：clipping + initial + acronyms + blending

Clipping 例女口luncheon = lun, omnibus二bus

Initial:缩写，例如WTO,(不能按照单词一样读出来)

Acronyms：缩写，例如AIDS,(可以像单词一样读出来)

Blending：（两个词a,b结合成第三个词c, c的意思是a,b的共有意思），例如：motel=motor+ hotel, medicare = medical +

5）Back formation!反成法）去掉affix 后形成的新的词语，例如television->televise; audition-->audit

6）Neologism新词，例如software, Coca Cola, EU, APEC（这明明是缩写嘛！搞不懂）

7）Borrowing 外来词，包括：Loan words（从另一种语言借入）,loan blends 例如companionship（不懂）,translation loans, 例如从法语中借来的black humor,中文的paper tiger

8）Analogy（类似）例如：bird's eye -^fish's eye; sunrise->moonrise

9）Contrast 例如I： baby boom->baby bust; nightmare->day mare

Sernantic relationship:

词语关系有：synonymy（近义词）+ antonymy （反义词）（包括complementary antonymy + gradable antonymy + relational antonymy） +Meronymy + Hyponymy + Polyemy + Homonymy （包括honograph 同形异义词+homophone 同音异义词）。其中：

complementary antonymy：互补性反义词，《有你没我》

gradable antonymy：程度性。即中间可以插入其他词，例如在hot与cold中间可以插入warm和cool。

relational antonymy：关系反义词。比如wife 和husband, buy 和sell, give 和take。

Meronymy：（整体与部分关系），例如tree包括trunk, root, branch等等。强调整体包扌舌什么部分。

Hyponymy：（下义词）例如animal可以分为livestock和wildlife,有种隶属的感觉。

Polyemy：（一词多义）和Homonymy （同形/同音异义词）可以根据两个方面来判断,1：词源etymology, 2:意义之间的相关性relatednesso 句际关系有:Entailment + presupposition + implicature

其屮，Entailment：内含，他的推断方向是：如果前一句成立了，那么后面一句肯定也成立。表示符号:

P q

TT T

F 弓T/F

F 《 F

T/FG T

而presupposition是预设，推断方向是如果后面这句成立了，前面这句肯定成立。表示符号:

P Q

T T T

F 9T

T/F e F

Implicature:含义，琢磨说话者啥意思。