Quotations of Bertrand Russell 罗素的名言名句
罗素的名言名句
Bertrand Russell QUOTES / QUOTATIONS
A hallucination is a fact, not an error; what is erroneous is a judgment based upon it.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
A happy life must be to a great extent a quiet life, for it is only in an atmosphere of quiet that true joy dare live.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
A life without adventure is likely to be unsatisfying, but a life in which adventure is allowed to take whatever form it will is sure to be short.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
A process which led from the amoeba to man appeared to the philosophers to be obviously a progress though whether the amoeba would agree with this opinion is not known.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
A sense of duty is useful in work but offensive in personal relations. People wish to be liked, not to be endured with patient resignation.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Admiration of the proletariat, like that of dams, power stations, and aeroplanes, is part of the ideology of the machine age.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Against my will, in the course of my travels, the belief that everything worth knowing was known at Cambridge gradually wore off. In this respect my travels were very useful to me.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
All movements go too far.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Anything you're good at contributes to happiness.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Aristotle could have avoided the mistake of thinking that women have fewer teeth than men, by the simple device of asking Mrs. Aristotle to keep her mouth open while he counted.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Aristotle maintained that women have fewer teeth than men; although he was twice married, it never occurred to him to verify this statement by examining his wives' mouths.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Awareness of universals is called conceiving, and a universal of which we are aware is called a concept.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Boredom is a vital problem for the moralist, since at least half the sins of mankind are caused by the fear of it.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Boredom is... a vital problem for the moralist, since half the sins of mankind are caused by the fear of it.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Both in thought and in feeling, even though time be real, to realise the unimportance of time is the gate of wisdom.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Collective fear stimulates herd instinct, and tends to produce ferocity toward those who are not regarded as members of the herd.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Contempt for happiness is usually contempt for other people's happiness, and is an elegant disguise for hatred of the human race.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Conventional people are roused to fury by departure from convention, largely because they regard such departure as a criticism of themselves.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Democracy is the process by which people choose the man who'll get the blame.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Do not fear to be eccentric in opinion, for every opinion now accepted was once eccentric. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Drunkenness is temporary suicide.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Ethics is in origin the art of recommending to others the sacrifices required for cooperation with oneself.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Extreme hopes are born from extreme misery.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Fear is the main source of superstition, and one of the main sources of cruelty. To conquer fear is the beginning of wisdom.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Freedom comes only to those who no longer ask of life that it shall yield them any of those personal goods that are subject to the mutations of time.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Freedom in general may be defined as the absence of obstacles to the realization of desires. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Freedom of opinion can only exist when the government thinks itself secure.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I believe in using words, not fists. I believe in my outrage knowing people are living in boxes on the street. I believe in honesty. I believe in a good time. I believe in good food. I believe in sex. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I do not pretend to start with precise questions. I do not think you can start with anything precise. You have to achieve such precision as you can, as you go along.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I like mathematics because it is not human and has nothing particular to do with this planet or with the whole accidental universe - because, like Spinoza's God, it won't love us in return. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I remain convinced that obstinate addiction to ordinary language in our private thoughts is one of the main obstacles to progress in philosophy.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I say quite deliberately that the Christian religion, as organized in its Churches, has been and still is the principal enemy of moral progress in the world.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I think we ought always to entertain our opinions with some measure of doubt. I shouldn't wish people dogmatically to believe any philosophy, not even mine.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
I've made an odd discovery. Every time I talk to a savant I feel quite sure that happiness is no longer a possibility. Yet when I talk with my gardener, I'm convinced of the opposite.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
If all our happiness is bound up entirely in our personal circumstances it is difficult not to demand of life more than it has to give.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
If there were in the world today any large number of people who desired their own happiness more than they desired the unhappiness of others, we could have a paradise in a few years.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
In all affairs it's a healthy thing now and then to hang a question mark on the things you have long taken for granted.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
In America everybody is of the opinion that he has no social superiors, since all men are equal, but he does not admit that he has no social inferiors, for, from the time of Jefferson onward, the doctrine that all men are equal applies only upwards, not downwards.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
In America everybody is of the opinion that he has no social superiors, since all men are equal, but he does not admit that he has no social inferiors.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
In the revolt against idealism, the ambiguities of the word experience have been perceived, with the result that realists have more and more avoided the word.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Indignation is a submission of our thoughts, but not of our desires.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
It has been said that man is a rational animal. All my life I have been searching for evidence which could support this.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
It is possible that mankind is on the threshold of a golden age; but, if so, it will be necessary first to slay the dragon that guards the door, and this dragon is religion.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
It is preoccupation with possessions, more than anything else, that prevents us from living freely and nobly.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
It seems to be the fate of idealists to obtain what they have struggled for in a form which destroys their ideals.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Italy, and the spring and first love all together should suffice to make the gloomiest person happy. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Liberty is the right to do what I like; license, the right to do what you like.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Life is nothing but a competition to be the criminal rather than the victim.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Love is something far more than desire for sexual intercourse; it is the principal means of escape from the loneliness which afflicts most men and women throughout the greater part of their lives. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Machines are worshipped because they are beautiful and valued because they confer power; they are hated because they are hideous and loathed because they impose slavery.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Man is a credulous animal, and must believe something; in the absence of good grounds for belief, he will be satisfied with bad ones.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Man needs, for his happiness, not only the enjoyment of this or that, but hope and enterprise and change.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Many a man will have the courage to die gallantly, but will not have the courage to say, or even to think, that the cause for which he is asked to die is an unworthy one.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Many people would sooner die than think; in fact, they do so.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Marriage is for women the commonest mode of livelihood, and the total amount of undesired sex endured by women is probably greater in marriage than in prostitution.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Mathematics may be defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Mathematics takes us into the region of absolute necessity, to which not only the actual word, but every possible word, must conform.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Men are born ignorant, not stupid. They are made stupid by education.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Men who are unhappy, like men who sleep badly, are always proud of the fact.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Most people would sooner die than think; in fact, they do so.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Much that passes as idealism is disguised hatred or disguised love of power.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Neither a man nor a crowd nor a nation can be trusted to act humanely or to think sanely under the influence of a great fear.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Next to enjoying ourselves, the next greatest pleasure consists in preventing others from enjoying themselves, or, more generally, in the acquisition of power.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
No one gossips about other people's secret virtues.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
No; we have been as usual asking the wrong question. It does not matter a hoot what the mockingbird on the chimney is singing. The real and proper question is: Why is it beautiful? Quotation of Bertrand Russell
None but a coward dares to boast that he has never known fear.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Obscenity is whatever happens to shock some elderly and ignorant magistrate.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Of all forms of caution, caution in love is perhaps the most fatal to true happiness.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
One of the symptoms of an approaching nervous breakdown is the belief that one's work is terribly important.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
One should respect public opinion insofar as is necessary to avoid starvation and keep out of prison, but anything that goes beyond this is voluntary submission to an unnecessary tyranny. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Order, unity, and continuity are human inventions, just as truly as catalogues and encyclopedias. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Patriotism is the willingness to kill and be killed for trivial reasons.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Patriots always talk of dying for their country and never of killing for their country.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Reason is a harmonising, controlling force rather than a creative one.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Religion is something left over from the infancy of our intelligence, it will fade away as we adopt reason and science as our guidelines.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Religions that teach brotherly love have been used as an excuse for persecution, and our profoundest scientific insight is made into a means of mass destruction.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Religions, which condemn the pleasures of sense, drive men to seek the pleasures of power. Throughout history power has been the vice of the ascetic.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Right discipline consists, not in external compulsion, but in the habits of mind which lead spontaneously to desirable rather than undesirable activities.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Science is what you know, philosophy is what you don't know.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Sin is geographical.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
So far as I can remember, there is not one word in the Gospels in praise of intelligence. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The coward wretch whose hand and heart Can bear to torture aught below, Is ever first to quail and start From the slightest pain or equal foe.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The degree of one's emotions varies inversely with one's knowledge of the facts.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The demand for certainty is one which is natural to man, but is nevertheless an intellectual vice. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The fact that an opinion has been widely held is no evidence whatever that it is not utterly absurd. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The fundamental concept in social science is Power, in the same sense in which Energy is the fundamental concept in physics.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The fundamental defect of fathers, in our competitive society, is that they want their children to be a credit to them.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The infliction of cruelty with a good conscience is a delight to moralists. That is why they invented Hell.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The most savage controversies are about matters as to which there is no good evidence either way. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The most savage controversies are those about matters as to which there is no good evidence either way. Persecution is used in theology, not in arithmetic.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The observer, when he seems to himself to be observing a stone, is really, if physics is to be believed, observing the effects of the stone upon himself.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The only thing that will redeem mankind is cooperation.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The place of the father in the modern suburban family is a very small one, particularly if he plays golf.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The point of philosophy is to start with something so simple as not to seem worth stating, and to end with something so paradoxical that no one will believe it.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The secret of happiness is this: let your interests be as wide as possible, and let your reactions to the things and persons that interest you be as far as possible friendly rather than hostile. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The secret to happiness is to face the fact that the world is horrible.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The slave is doomed to worship time and fate and death, because they are greater than anything he finds in himself, and because all his thoughts are of things which they devour.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The theoretical understanding of the world, which is the aim of philosophy, is not a matter of great practical importance to animals, or to savages, or even to most civilised men.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The time you enjoy wasting is not wasted time.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The trouble with the world is that the stupid are cocksure and the intelligent are full of doubt. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more than Man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to be found in mathematics as surely as poetry. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The universe may have a purpose, but nothing we know suggests that, if so, this purpose has any similarity to ours.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, and wiser people so full of doubts.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
The world is full of magical things patiently waiting for our wits to grow sharper.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
There is much pleasure to be gained from useless knowledge.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
There is no need to worry about mere size. We do not necessarily respect a fat man more than a
thin man. Sir Isaac Newton was very much smaller than a hippopotamus, but we do not on that account value him less.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
There is something feeble and a little contemptible about a man who cannot face the perils of life without the help of comfortable myths.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Those who forget good and evil and seek only to know the facts are more likely to achieve good than those who view the world through the distorting medium of their own desires.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Thought is subversive and revolutionary, destructive and terrible, Thought is merciless to privilege, established institutions, and comfortable habit. Thought is great and swift and free.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To acquire immunity to eloquence is of the utmost importance to the citizens of a democracy. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To be without some of the things you want is an indispensable part of happiness.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To conquer fear is the beginning of wisdom.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To fear love is to fear life, and those who fear life are already three parts dead.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To teach how to live without certainty and yet without being paralysed by hesitation is perhaps the chief thing that philosophy, in our age, can do for those who study it.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
To understand a name you must be acquainted with the particular of which it is a name. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
War does not determine who is right - only who is left.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
We are faced with the paradoxical fact that education has become one of the chief obstacles to intelligence and freedom of thought.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
What is wanted is not the will to believe, but the will to find out, which is the exact opposite. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
What is wanted is not the will to believe, but the wish to find out, which is its exact opposite. Quotation of Bertrand Russell
When the intensity of emotional conviction subsides, a man who is in the habit of reasoning will search for logical grounds in favour of the belief which he finds in himself.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Why is propaganda so much more successful when it stirs up hatred than when it tries to stir up friendly feeling?
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
Work is of two kinds: first, altering the position of matter at or near the earth's surface relative to other matter; second, telling other people to do so.
Quotation of Bertrand Russell
浅论罗素的摹状词
浅析罗素的摹状词理论 罗素认为，哲学的本质工作是对语言进行逻辑分析，对哲学问题的分析能够看出是否是真正的逻辑问题。在语言哲学和逻辑学领域中，罗素的摹状词占有非常重要的地位。罗素开拓了摹状词理论新领域，取得了极大的突破。他区分了专名和摹状词，并且提出了分析摹状词的方法，从而解决了哲学上的三大难题，因此，罗素创造的摹状词理论对之后的摹状词理论的发展有着深远的影响。 同一律失效，排中律失效，存在悖论这三者是哲学史上的三大难题，在很长一段时间里，这三大难题都无法得到解决，直到罗素开创了摹状词理论，这三个悬而为解的难题才得到最终解决。与此同时，“语言学转向”的出现也推动了罗素摹状词理论的提出，而在罗素之后，多位哲学家对他的摹状词理论进行了深入研究并且提出了各自对摹状词理论的见解，由此可见，罗素的摹状词理论有利于于后世哲学家的研究并且影响范围广，影响深度大。 罗素的摹状词理论是在一定的背景下产生的，“语言学转向”就是罗素摹状词理论产生的背景。“语言学转向”这一概念最初是由维也纳学派哲学家古斯塔夫—伯格曼提出的，这个转向就是指哲学研究对象从认识论主体转向语言本身，一片研究语言的热潮为罗素提供了研究背景，他针对德国哲学家麦农的对象理论，指出任何一个名称都是有所指的并且所指的对象都是存在的。而哲学三大难题也促进了罗素摹状词理论的产生。 第一个哲学难题是“同一替换规则失效”。比如，乔治想知道司各特是不是《瓦利弗》的作者，当司各特是《瓦利弗》的作者时，可以将“司各特”替换成“《瓦利弗》的作者”，于是，我们得到“乔治想知道司各特是不是司各特”。这句话逻辑上是不成立的，因而，同一律失效。第二个哲学难题是排中律失效。排中律表明，两者之间必有一真，不存在非真非假的情况。“当今法国国王是秃头”和“当今法国国王不是秃头”这两者都是假的，因为法国没有国王，因而，排中律在此处是失效的。第三个哲学难题是存在悖论。“这座金山不存在”。当这个语句为真的时候，“金山”这个词没有指称对象，当这个语句为假的时候，语句本身也就没有意义了。由此表明，这个语句不可能既是真的，同时又是有意义的。罗素的摹状词理论在破解这三大哲学难题时做了非常详细的阐述，被称为“哲学典范”。 罗素最初在《论指谓》中系统的提出了关于限定摹状词的思想，之后对此思想不断的进行充实扩展，最终形成为哲学典范的摹状词理论。罗素强调不能把专名和摹状词混为一谈，“关于限定摹状词，首先一点要弄清的，就是它不是一个名字。”专名是简单符号，而摹状词是复合符号。在罗素看来，任何专名都是有所指的，专名的意义就是自然语言中的专有名词，比如苏格拉底，比如埃菲尔铁塔。专名最终是要通过对对象的特征进行描述和说明的方法才能完成指称，因此，名称必须是要有含义的。而摹状词与之不同，摹状词是不具有饱和性与唯一性的，它只有在命题使用中才有意义。因而要对命题进行逻辑分析，得到命题的真正形式，并且消除摹状词的存在，哲学三大难题才会得到解决。 摹状词的类型主要是两种类型，不定摹状词和限定摹状词。不定摹状词是没有限定的，比如一个人，一棵树等，这种“一个如此这般的东西”形式的短语就是不定摹状词，它具有不定性。限定摹状词与之相反，比如，这个人，这棵树，那个人，那棵树等，这种“那个如此这般的东西”形式的短语就是限定摹状词，它与不定摹状词相比较具有唯一性。罗素认为，如果要消除不定摹状词的话，必
罗素论人性和政治
伯特兰·罗素（Bertrand Russell 1872－1970） 罗素是20世纪声誉卓著、影响深远的思想家之一。在其漫长的一生中，完成了40余部著作，涉及哲学、数学、科学、论理学、社会学、教育、历史、宗教及政治等各个领域，对西方哲学产生了深刻影响。1950年获诺贝尔文学奖。 On Human Nature and Politics 论人性和政治 Undoubtedly the desire for food has been, and still is ,one of the main causes of great political events. But man differs from other animals in one very important respect, and that is that he has desires which are , so to speak, intimate, which can never be fully gratified, and which should keep him restless even in Paradise. The boa constrictor, when he had an adequate meal, goes to sleep, and does not wake until he needs another meal. Human beings, for the most not part are not like this. When the Arabs, who had been used to living sparingly on a few dates acquired the riches of the Eastern Roman Empire and dwelt in palaces of almost unbelievable luxury, they did not, on that account, become inactive. Hunger could no longer be a motive, for Greek slaves supplied them with exquisite viands at the slightest nod. But other desires kept them active; four in particular , which we can label acquisitiveness , rivalry, vanity and love of power.毫无疑问，占有食物的欲望过去一直是，而且现在也仍然是导致重大政治事件的主要原因之一。而人不同于其他动物的一个重要方面在于人具有无止境的、永远无法满足的欲望，欲望使人即使到了天堂也会坐立不安。巨蟒饱食后就去睡觉，直到需要再进食时它才醒来，绝大部分人不像巨蟒那样。习惯于吃几个枣充饥的阿拉伯人没有因为获得了东罗马帝国的财富，稍一点头，希腊奴隶就会为他们端上最精美的食物，然而是其他欲望使他们行动起来，尤其是以下四种。可以称之为：占有欲，竞争欲、虚荣心、权力欲。 Acquisitiveness-the wish to possess as much as possible of goods , or the title to goods-is a motive which, I suppose, has its origin in a combination of fear with the desire for necessaries.占有欲--希望尽可能多地占有财产或拥有财产的所有权--是一个动机。我认为该动机产生于恐惧心理和拥有必需品的欲望结合之中。 I once befriended two little girls from Esthonia, who had narrowly escaped death from starvation in a famine. They lived in my family ,and of course had plenty to eat.But they spent all their leisure visiting neighbouring farms and stealing potatoes, which they hoarded . Rockfeller ,who in his infancy had experienced great poverty ,spent his adult life in a similar manner.Similarly the Arab chieftains on their silken Byzantine divans could not forget the desert ,and hoarded riches far beyond any possible physical need. But whatever the psychoanalysis of acquisitiveness, no one can deny that it is one of the great motives -especially among the more powerful, for ,as I said before, it is one of the infinite motives .However much you may acquire you will always wish to acquire more ;satiety is a dream which will always elude you.
关于罗素的名言_名人名言
关于罗素的名言 1、你能在浪费时间中获得乐趣，就不是浪费时间。——罗素 2、数学是符号加逻辑。——罗素 3、一个教育者应该爱年轻人。但是仅仅这二点是不够的；他还必须具有对人类优秀品质的正确理解。——罗素 4、人生而无知，但还不愚蠢。教育才把他们变蠢。——罗素 5、我们有力的道德就是通过奋斗取得物质上的成功；这种道德既适用于国家，也适用于个人——罗素 6、亚里士多德说女人比男人的牙齿要少。尽管他结了两次婚，但是他都没想过要检查一下他老婆的牙。——罗素 7、良好的人生是受行动和智慧指导的。——罗素 8、不要用权力去压制你认为有害的意见，因为如果你采取压制，其实只说明你自己受到了这些意见的压制。——罗素 9、即使真相并不令人愉快，也一定要做到诚实，因为掩盖真相往往要费更大力气。——罗素 10、我们不能从使每个人具有诗人的气质的观点来制订我们的教育，但是有些特性是普温需要的，它们共同形成理想品格的基础，这就是：活力、勇气、敏感、智慧。——罗素 11、我的人生正是：使事业成为喜悦，使喜悦成为事业。——罗素 1 / 6
12、任何一种哲学思想只要是它能够自圆其说，它就具有某种真正的知识。——罗素 13、人是轻信的动物，必须得相信点什么。如果这种信仰没有什么好的依据，糟糕的依据也能对付。——罗素 14、我曾相信，所有值得知道之事，我在剑桥都知道了。在我旅行的过程之中，这一想法逐渐消失了。这与我本意相反，但是却对我非常有益。——罗素 15、人的真实生活不在于穿衣吃饭，而在艺术、思想和爱，在于美的创造和瞑想以及对于世界的合乎科学的了解。——罗素 16、从阿米巴变形虫到人类的这一过程对哲学家来说，很明显是个进步。但是变形虫怎么想我们就不知道了。——罗素 17、许多人宁愿死，也不愿思考，事实上他们也确实至死都没有思考过。——罗素 18、希望是坚韧的拐杖，忍耐是旅行袋，携带它们，人可以登上永恒之旅。?——罗素 19、一个明智地追求快乐的人，除了培养生活赖以支撑的主要兴趣之外，总得设法培养其他许多闲情逸致。——罗素 20、“现在”是刚过去的时间上的一个“点”。——罗素 21、有很多人，让他们思考一下还不如让他们去死。事实上，很多人还没思考过就已经死了。——罗素 22、谨慎的人也许能领导一个国家，但——罗素 2 / 6
简析摹状词理论
简析摹状词理论 摘要：摹状词理论从语言形式上成功地解决了20世纪三大语义学难题。向人们展示了解决哲学疑难和捍卫特定哲学立场的语言形式分析方法的范式，在西方哲学界产生了巨大的影响。关键词：摹状词；命题 事物指称论(名称的所指对象是与名称一一对应的客观事物的思想)的主要代表人物罗素，在专名的指称问题上由早期的语法指称论转向中期的逻辑指称论，并在这一问题上取得了划的成就——对语句结构进行深人的逻辑分析，严格区分专名和摹状词，提出著名的“摹状词理论”。使他从语言形式上捍卫了他的事物指称论思想。 罗素认为，20世纪产生的三大语义学难题的根源在于我们没有对专名和摹状词做出明确的 区分。罗素当初就是为了解决三大语义学难题而提出他的摹状词理论的。罗素通过对专名和摹状词的严格区分及对摹状词的精细语句分析,从而成功地解决了自然语言中可能出现的这 三类难题。 下面我们看罗素是怎样用他的摹状词理论破解上述三大语义学难题的。 (一) 同一替换难题:若a = b ,根据同一律,在任何命题中a、b可以相互替换,且不会改变命题 的真值。但现实语言中这一说法却有问题。“例如,乔治四世想知道司各脱是否为《威弗利》的作者;而事实上司各脱是《威弗利》的作者,从而证明乔治四世想知道的是,司各脱是否是司各脱。” 要解决这道难题，罗素首先区分名字与摹状词。在论文《摹状词》的第十五段落，他给的定义是：“(1)名字。一个名字是一个简单的符号，直接指一个个体，这个个体就是它的意义，并且凭它自身而有意义，与所有其它的字的意义无关；(2)摹状词。一个摹状词由几个字组成，这些字的意义已经确定，摹状词所有的意义都是由这些意义而来。”由此，我们不难区分：“司各特”为名字，“《威弗利》的作者”为摹状词。然后在第十六段落开头，罗素写道“包含一个摹状词的命题和以名字替换命题中的摹状词而得的命题不是相同的，即使名字所指的和摹状词所描述的是同一个对象，这两个命题也不一样”。命题“司各特是《威弗利》的作者” 与命题“司各特是司各特”显然是不同的。 (二)排中律失效难题:根据排中律“, A是B”或“A不是B”两个矛盾命题必有一真,但“当今法国国王是秃头”或“当今法国国王不是秃头”都是假命题。那么如何能说明这两个矛盾的命题事实上不都是假的,从而保证排中律有效? 对待这个难题，罗素认为不仅要区分专名与摹状词，还要区分摹状词出现在命题中是“首次出现”(primarv0ccurrence)还是“再次出现”(secondary occurrence)。他认为，“每一个在其中一个摹状词有首次出现但并不摹状任何东西的命题都是假的”。所以，命题“那个当今的法国国王是秃头”因为其中的“那个当今的法国国王”是一个什么都没描述的摹状词并且是首次出现，此命题为假。对待“A不是B”何时为真、何时为假就看在主词位置上的摹状词A是“首次出现”还是“再次出现”。“如果我们原有‘X是秃子’，然后以‘那个当今的法国国王’代以‘X’，然后再否定这结果，那么这个摹状词的出现是再次的，并且命题为真；但若我们原有的是‘X’不是秃子’，而后‘X’代以‘那个当今的法国国王’，那么这个摹状词的出现是初次的，并且命题为假。”经过这么一分析，原来传统逻辑学的排中律难题就解决了：对于“A是B”和“A不是B”这两个相反的命题，当处于主词位置上的A是一个什么都没描述的摹状词并有初次出现条件下，这两 个命题都为假。 (三) 非实体不存在难题:按弗雷格的含义—指称理论,在当所指似乎缺乏时,会遇到如下困难, 说某物如:“这座金山不存在”,从直观上看似乎是谓语“不存在”对主语“金山”的一种性
罗素的名言英文
罗素的名言英文 导读：本文是关于罗素的名言英文，如果觉得很不错，欢迎点评和分享！ 1、这个世界最大的问题就是蠢人和狂徒自命不凡，而智者却满腹疑虑。 The world's biggest problem is that fools and fanatics pretentious, but the wise man was full of doubts. 2、我们常问，是否知道这个或知道那个，但我们没有问过“知道”本身是什么。 We often ask, do we know whether or not we know that, but we do not ask "know" what is. 3、人类一切的活动都发生于两个来源：冲动与愿望。 All human activities occur in two sources: impulse and desire. 4、这世界给予的乐趣没有一个像它带走的一般快活，当早年思绪的光芒在情感的隐隐褪色中渐渐淹没。 The joy of the world is not so good as it is to be taken away, when the light of the early thoughts is gradually submerged in the fading of the emotion. 5、惧怕爱情就是惧怕生活，而惧怕生活的人就等于半具僵尸。 To fear love is to fear life, and those who fear life are half a
zombie. 6、我们所需要的，不是相信某种说法或信仰的意愿，而是探究的意愿。这两者截然相反。 What we need is not a willingness to believe in a statement or belief, but a willingness to explore. These two opposite. 7、人之所以有道德是因为受到的**还不够大。 The reason why people are moral is because the temptation is not big enough. 8、喝醉是暂时性的**。 Drunk is a temporary suicide. 9、幸福的秘诀是让你的兴趣尽量的扩大，让你对人对物的反应尽量的倾于友善。 The secret of happiness is to make your interests expand as much as possible, so that you tend to be friendly to people's reactions to things. 10、要了解一个时代或一个民族，我们必须了解它的哲学。 To understand an era or a nation, we must understand its philosophy. 11、明智地度过闲暇时光的能力，是文明的终极产物。 The ability to spend leisure time wisely is the ultimate product of civilization.
罗素的限定性摹状词理论及其指称-精选资料
罗素的限定性摹状词理论及其指称 罗素是限定摹状词的创始人，在罗素看来，摹状词有限定和非限定摹状词构成。限定摹状词的代表式为“这个如此这般的东西”（the so and so），比如说the morning star，“当今的英国女王”，“那个奔跑的孩子”等等。专名（从广义上讲包括普通名词）是限定摹状词的特殊形式。罗素此种分类的目的在于证明所有的单数词项，包括限定摹状词、专名、单数代词和指示代词，并不意味着客观世界的存在。换句话说，罗素的目的在于否定传统的指称理论。 基于弗雷格的研究，针对限定摹状词这一术语，罗素首先提出了以下4个问题。 （一）明显指称与非存在问题 在罗素看来，由主语和谓语构成的句子是有意义的，其原因在于该句选择了某一存在或存在物，并且赋予了这一存在某种特质。如果句子的主语无法选择或指示某一存在，矛盾就会产生。在例句（1）中，由于现在不存在目前的法国国王，要定位一个根本不存在的存在物是不合乎逻辑的。更糟糕的是，is bald这一谓语无法定位任何指示物，因此例句（1）是一个合乎语法但不合乎逻辑的句子。 （1）. The present King of France is bald. （二）否定存在问题
否定存在问题是问题一的特例，但与问题一相比要更为严重。从字面来看，例句（2）似乎是合乎逻辑并可接受的，因为 目前不存在法国国王这的确是事实。但是问题正出现在这里：如果例句（2）是合乎逻辑的，那么就不应该用不存在的present King of France作为主语；如果这样一位国王真的存在，那么 为什么又要在谓语中将其否定？ （2）. The present King of France does not exist. （三）弗雷格关于身份的困惑 例句（3）这样的身份陈述句包括两个单数词项。如果该陈 述为真值，那么这两个词项指示同一个人或同一个事物。表面来看，这两个陈述仅仅是表明Elizabeth这个人与自己一致，因此使得陈述本身变得次重要。然而实际上，该陈述是重要的，它的确相听话者传递了某些信息，例如：谁是Elizabeth，或者谁统治英格兰。用弗雷格的话来说，这两个单数词项拥有同样的指称但意义不同。 （3）. Elizabeth Windsor = the present Queen of England. （四）可替换性问题 单数词项的功能在于能够选出某一个体事物，并将其引入话语。因此一般来说任何两个指称同一事物的单数词项在语义上是相同的：我们可以在任何句子中用两个词项的其中一个词项替换另一个词项而不改变句子的意思，或者至少不改变句子的真值。我们来看例句（4）：
论罗素的智力教育观
论罗素的智力教育观 摘要：英国哲学家、数学家、教育理论家罗素的智力教育观认为，品性教育是基础，应在儿童6岁之前进行。理想的智力教育需要一些智力美德——好奇心、虚心、忍耐、勤勉、集中精力和对精确度的追求。罗素提倡要以科学的态度而不是主观主义的态度教育儿童，从而使儿童产生一种发现真理的愿望。罗素的这些教育思想，无论从教育理论，还是从教育实践方面，对于我们当前改革中国的应试教育、发展素质教育都具有极其重要的借鉴意义。 关键词：罗素；智力教育观；科学态度 一、智力教育与智力美德 根据罗素的教育目的和教育思想，品性教育比智力教育更重要，应着重在孩子6岁之前进行。罗素认为：“有文化的个体是指一位获得能为社会服务的知识和技巧，并且具有能和同事协调相处的行为习惯的人。在一个人与别人的关系中不起作用的知识，是没有价值的。”我们不可以单纯追求知识的获得，从孩子两三岁就开始教他认字、学算术，而不考虑为社会服务、与同事协调相处的问题。 关于智力教育，他认为美好的品德是智力教育的基础。如果方法得当，智力教育也可以产生美好的智力美德。这些智力美德包括：好奇心、虚心、忍耐、勤勉、集中精力和对精确度的追求。进行智力教育，必须使学生懂得知识的获取必定存在一定的难度，但是任何难度的知识都可以通过忍耐、勤勉、集中精力和对精确度的追求来获得。 在这些智力美德中，最重要的是好奇心。罗素认为，教学的目的就应该是部分地满足学生的好奇心，部分地给予他们需要的某种技巧，以便他们能够自己满足自己的好奇心。教师应该对一种富有成效的好奇心进行激励，即使好奇心全部是在学校课程之外，也不能使好奇心受挫。因为，“没有单纯的好奇心，许多最有价值的知识就绝不可能被发现”。我们的家长、教师以及教育部门的领导同志可以扪心自问，有多少孩子的好奇心被我们激活了，又有多少孩子的好奇心在家里和学校得到了满足，我们大人教给了孩子多少能够满足好奇心的技巧? 虚心这种品质表达了真诚追求知识的愿望。因此，“虚心的品质在没有任何信念的幼年时期比在以后生活中更为普遍。我们应该鼓励年轻人以开明的心态看待每一个问题，能够丢弃那些经过争论证明了的问题。”笔者认为，我们的大人、我们的教育者自己首先应该以开明的态度看待事物，避免主观主义的发生。 按照罗素的观点，理想的集中注意力具有三种特征：即强烈性、持续性和意志控制性。“要取得一项不易取得的成就，甚至对任何复杂的或者奥妙的主题的理解，能够在同一事物上集中注意思考相当长的时间是必不可少的品质。”虽然，随着年龄的增长，注意力会自然地越来越集中，而且对事物自发而浓厚的兴趣也会产生这一效果。但是，要真正使其有价值，集中注意力必须是在意志的控制之
名人名言：伯特兰·罗素名言录(中英对照)
洛基提醒：英语学习已经进入互联网时代 Do not fear to be eccentric in opinion, for every opinion now accepted was once eccentric. 不要害怕怀有怪念头，因为现在人们接受的所有的观念都曾经是怪念头。 Democracy is the process by which people choose the man who'll get the blame. 民主，就是挑选那个受批评的人的过程。 Drunkenness is temporary suicide. 喝醉是暂时性的自杀。 I say quite deliberately that the Christian religion, as organized in its Churches, has been and still is the principal enemy of moral progress in the world. 我明确的说，由教会所组织的基督教是道德进步的最大敌人，过去如此，现在依然如此。 A process which led from the amoeba to man appeared to the philosophers to be obviously a progress though whether the amoeba would agree with this opinion is not known. 从阿米巴变形虫到人类的这一过程对哲学家来说，很明显是个进步。但是变形虫怎么想我们就不知道了。 I would never die for my beliefs because I might be wrong. 我永远不会为信仰而死，因为我的信仰可能是错的。 In America everybody is of the opinion that he has no social superiors, since all men are equal, but he does not admit that he has no social inferiors. 在美国，所有人都认为没有什么人比他的社会地位高，因为人人生而平等。但是，他可不承认没有人比他社会地位低。 It has been said that man is a rational animal. All my life I have been searching for evidence which could support this. 据说人是一种理性动物。穷我自己一生，我都在寻找这观点的证据。 Man is a credulous animal, and must believe something; in the absence of good grounds for belief, he will be satisfied with bad ones. 人是轻信的动物，必须得相信点什么。如果这种信仰没有什么好的依据，糟糕的依据也能对付。 Many a man will have the courage to die gallantly, but will not have the courage to say, or even to think, that the cause for which he is asked to die is an unworthy one. 很多人可以勇敢的死去，但是却没有勇气说他为之而死的原因没有意义，甚至连这样想一想的勇气也没有。 Many people when they fall in love look for a little haven of refuge from the world, where they can be sure of being admired when they are not admirable, and praised when they are not
罗素论教育
罗素论教育 罗素论教育 《论教育》是罗素自选文集中的一章，节选自《人类为何战斗》。罗素的这篇论文涉及到了教育的方方面面，甚杂甚广，难以在一篇短文中完整地讨论。今天我就先记录一下他对于教育的宗旨的观念。在我看来，罗素是一个充满了理想的人，字里行间充满了对于人类思想的讴歌。在他看来，教育显然不应该仅仅只是教会孩子一门谋生的技能，而更应该因材施教，令有智慧兴趣的孩子们能够在不断的追问中，在不断的对于世界的探索中，培养出思考的能力，思考的习惯，思考的兴趣。“或多或少把思考的欢愉带给所有具备独立思考能力的人们，这乃是可贵的精神教育的最高宗旨”照他的描述，其实他所生活的年代的英国教育与现在的中国教育也相去不 远“只要教育的目的是制造信仰，而非鼓励思考；是强迫青年对于可疑之事抱定无疑之见，而非放手让他们观察可疑之处，鼓励他们树立独立见解，那么，对于求知探索的自由加以禁止就是无法避免的事情。教育应带培育追求真理的希望，而不应当认定某些特殊的信条就是真理”这岂不就是中国教育 活生生的写照么！那么教育为什么会是这样呢？他接着阐述“正是信条把人们团结在战斗的集体（宗教、国家、政党）之中。正是信条中凝聚的信仰产生了战斗力，使胜利归属于那
些对可疑之事抱定最坚定信念的人们。而实际上，对可疑之事投以疑问才是理智的态度。”很明白，可不就是这么一个道理！想当年，民国的宽松空气鼓舞了青年人去主动思考，去追求各种信仰而不是某一个特定的“正确答案”，到最后，胜出的可不就是那群信仰最坚定的人么？但是信仰坚定与理 性思考，本身就是矛盾的两个概念。一时的武力的胜利，并不能说明有坚定的信仰就要比有理性的充满怀疑的思维的 要强；毕竟，斯巴达可以用坚强的纪律打败雅典，但是雅典的公民精神，理性的论辩，自由的思维发展所结出的精神之花才是能永世让后人向往的。那么在理想状态下，教育的目的就很明白了，而且为何理想的教育无法在社会范围内得到广泛的推行也变得很显然。政党，当权者，既得利益者，从自己的角度出发，必然会希望以符合自己利益的方式去教育孩子，用重复性的填鸭式教育扼杀他们的思考能力，毕竟，有思考能力的奴隶最危险。成年人最想塑造的，是一个对于自己所说的话深信不疑并且会坚决执行的机器。但是教育的根本目的，绝不只是让孩子们学会一样谋生的本领，甚至也不是让孩子们学会更宽泛的“谋生的综合能力”。教育的目的，是让一批又一批的新生命，了解人类的社会历史文化以及整个大自然，并在这个基础之上，学会自由的根据自己的兴趣去发问，探索，思考，并接过接力棒，将人类的文明推向一个新的高度。
罗素的名言
罗素的名言 罗素说，人活着有三个理由: 第一个理由是追求爱情（longing for love）。 因为爱情会带来狂喜（ecstasy），这是其他任何经历都做不到的；爱情能减轻孤独，让你对生活不再那么恐惧；爱情能创造最美好的人类生活，仿佛天堂的缩影。 第二个理由是追求知识（search for knowledge）。 因为知识能让我们理解人的内心，理解自然界，满足我们与生俱来的好奇心。 第三个理由是同情心（pity for the suffering）。 当你看到他人受苦、看到饥饿的孩子、看到被压迫的人民、看到被虐待的老人，看到人类的孤独、贫穷、痛苦，你的内心都会难以平静。我们活着，就是为了减轻一些这种苦难，不仅为了帮助他人，还因为我们自己也是这种苦难的受害者。 罗素曾说，人活在世上，主要是在做两件事：一、改变物体的位置和形状，二、支使别人这样干。 罗素名言录: 如果没有知识，我们可能相信道听途说，好心做了坏事。(罗素：分析哲学家) 人的欲望有四大种：贪婪、竞争、虚荣、权力。(罗素：分析哲学家) 《怎样变老》人的一生就应该像一条河，开始是涓涓细流，被狭窄的河岸所束缚，然后，它激烈地奔过巨石，冲越瀑布。渐渐地，河流变宽了，
两边的堤岸也远去，河水流动得更加平静。最后，它自然地融入了大海，并毫无痛苦地消失了自我。 恐惧是迷信的根源，也是造成残忍的主要原因之一。智慧始于征服恐惧。 放弃自己想要的某些东西是幸福生活不可或缺的一部分。 人的情绪起落是与他对事实的感知成反比的，你对事实了解得越少，就容易动感情。 精神崩溃的一个最初征兆就是坚信自己的工作非常非常重要。 人的真实生活不在于穿衣吃饭，而在艺术、思想和爱，在于美的创造和瞑想以及对于世界的合乎科学的了解。 我们两次出生于这个世界，第一次是为了存在，第二次是为了生存。 人类一切的活动都发生于两个来源：冲动与愿望 缺乏，是幸福必不可少的一个条件。 乞丐不忌妒百万富翁，虽然他们忌妒比自己收获多的其他乞丐。 人们对他人的抱怨，往往只是天生的私心对超出了正常范围的贪心的合理反应。《罗素说：快乐生活》
罗素的摹状词理论初探
罗素的摹状词理论初探 提要：作为关于专名的极为重要的理论,罗素的摹状词理论对逻辑学和哲学都产生了广泛而深刻的影响。但是,罗素的摹状词理论自提出之后却遭到了不少的批评。本文对罗素的摹状词理论进行简单的介绍,并分析其遭受的主要批评,以期对其客观的定位和合理的评价。 关键词:摹状词;批评;定位;评价 一、罗素的摹状词理论 罗素在1905年发表的论文《论指称》(On Denoting)中提出了摹状词理论,并在此后的著作中对此理论进行了一些补充和改善。罗素首先摹状词区分为限定的和非限定两类。限定摹状词通常是the+单数语词,如the man,the present King of England。限定摹状词的主要内容是对一些语句作出改写,把包含限定摹状词以及包含一般概念作为主词的句子改写为一个命题函式,以此揭示其真实的逻辑结构,暴露出其表面语法只是假象。罗素认为他的限定摹状词理论解决了三大哲学难题:A.迈农悖论B.违背排中律C.同一性问题。 罗素的改写方式有时比较接近日常语言,有时采用的却是符号逻辑形式。陈嘉映(2006)将罗素的改写以以下形式体现出来: A.金山不存在=没有一个X,这个X既是金子做的,又是山。 B.当今法国国王是秃头=存在一个人,这个人是当今的法国国王,这个人是秃头。 C.《瓦弗利》的作者是司各特=有一个且仅有一个对象写了《瓦弗利》,并且这个对象是司各特。(更形式化的表达方法是:有一个X,那个X写了《瓦弗利》,对于所有Y,如果Y写《瓦弗利》,则Y与X等同,并且X就是司各特。)[1] 以上包含限定摹状词的句子经过改写后,句子中不再包含限定摹状词。那么罗素的改写是如何解决前面提到的三个哲学难题的呢?下面,我们来仔细看一下他的分析。 A.金山不存在 在这一命题中,金山是主语,不存在是谓语。经过改写后,金山被分解为“金子做的”和“山”这两个部分,且“金子做的”和“山”都从主词的位置转到了谓词的位置上。这样,罗素便认为他清除了迈农世界里那些稀奇古怪的实体。 B.当今法国国王是秃头
中西文明比较
中西文明比较 中西文明比较是一个很庞大复杂的论题，中国的陈独秀、鲁迅、梁漱溟、林语堂、李敖、柏杨、孙隆基、赵鑫珊以及英国的伯特兰·罗素等都曾对之进行过研究，提出了不少真知灼见。罗素在《东西方文明比较》中认为，中国人和西方人在性格品质上的明显差别表现在：西方人生性好战喜欢竞争与崇尚变革，爱钱，重视人际交往的直率，办事倾向彻底，中国人气质平和而安于现状，爱权，讲究人际交往的客套，办事喜欢妥协。 从文化性质来看，中国文化属于“伦理型”文化；西方文化属于“法理型”文化。中国文化从“性善”的角度出发，认为人的本性是善的，主张建立良好的伦理道德以规范人们的行为，通过教化来使人形成自律意识，自觉克服人的动物性本能，自觉克服个人的私欲，遵守社会规范，维护社会秩序：西方文化从“性恶”的角度出发，认为人的本性是恶的，主张“原罪说”，认为人生下来就有罪，主张建立严密的法律来抑制个人的私欲和动物性本能．以“他律”来促使人们遵守社会规范，维护社会秩序。 在《红楼梦》与《神曲》两部作品的叙事结构上可以看出中西文学的相同与不同点。两位作者在爱情观念上迥异其趣。《红楼梦》可说是一以贯之的女神、女性至上以及爱情至上；灵界的神明是女娲，梦境的引领是警幻仙姑，情爱主角是草木人儿林黛玉；褒扬颂赞，一目了然。而但丁却一面把他人的爱情打入地狱，一面又让自己的心上人将他牵引去天堂。《红楼梦》犹如一曲爱情礼赞，而《神曲》却在
排除了人间情爱的同时，悄悄地为自己保留了爱的一席之地。 《红楼梦》所聚焦的叙事对象是当下的人生、当下的生活、当下的世界；《神曲》所关注的是被文字所现成化了的历史和人物，从而以审判的方式而不是描述的方式，表达了自己的宗教立场和审美情趣。从《红楼梦》灵、梦、情的叙事结构里，读者可以感觉到作者的悲悯。而《神曲》的地狱、炼狱、天堂的叙事结构，却充满着一种审判的严厉。 在所有西方文艺复兴文学经典的人物造型之中，与贾宝玉形象最为对称的，恐怕当数莎士比亚戏剧里的哈姆雷特。一者是拒绝任何义务和担当的多情公子，一者是承担了义务和责任而放弃了爱情的复仇王子。多情公子为情而生，因情而去；复仇王子因为复仇而弃爱弃生，因为复仇而与仇敌同归于尽。这两个人物呈现出两种截然不同的审美，一者美在拒绝，一者美在担当。倘若说拒绝是由重而轻的飘然出世，那么担当则是由轻入重的“我不下地狱谁下地狱”。或者说，生命因为拒绝而飞升，因为担当而下沉。飞升并非虚无飘渺，而是决绝；下沉并非坠落成泥，而是沉入海底复归于死亡的宁静。 在中西方传统爱情观的比较下，爱情在中国传统社会文化结构中的地位很低.被认为是次要的。由于深受儒家政治伦理思想的影响，中国传统文化中爱情的功能被单一化.仅仅起繁衍后代的作用。爱情和婚姻建立在“父母之命，媒妁之言”上，目的性和功利性都很强。西方人认为爱情本身是一种价值.持“爱情至上”的观点。他们把爱情看得高于一切甚至生命，不懂爱就不懂生活。罗密欧与朱丽叶不顾
罗素名言英语
罗素名言英语 1、对爱情的渴望，对知识的追求，对人类苦难无可遏止的同情心，这三种 简单而又强烈的感情支配了我的一生。 The thirst for love, the pursuit of knowledge, and the unbridled sympathy for human suffering have governed my life. 2、青年时期是豁达的时期，应该利用这个时期养成自己豁达的性格。 Youth is an open-minded period. We should use this period to develop our own open-minded personality. 3、我永远不会为信仰而死，因为我的信仰可能是错的。 I will never die for my beliefs, because my beliefs may be wrong. 4、从阿米巴变形虫到人类的这一过程对哲学家来说，很明显是个进步。但 是变形虫怎么想我们就不知道了。 The process from amoebas to humans is clearly a step forward for philosophers. But we don't know what amoebas think. 5、希望是坚韧的拐仗，忍耐是旅行袋。携带它们，人可以走完世界，登上 永恒之旅。 Hope is a tough crutch, and patience is a travel bag. With them, people can walk the world and embark on an eternal journey. 6、爱情只有当它是自由自在时，才会叶茂花繁。认为爱情是某种义务的思 想只能置爱情于死地。 Love will flourish only when it is free and at ease. The idea that love is a duty can only kill love. 7、据说人是一种理性动物。穷我自己一生，我都在寻找这观点的证据。 It is said that man is a rational animal. Throughout my life, I have been looking for evidence of this view. 8、一个教育者应该爱年轻人，但是仅仅这一点是不够的，他还必须是有对 人类优秀品质的正确理解。 An educator should love young people, but this is not enough. He must also have a correct understanding of the good qualities of human beings. 9、知识是自然势力和破坏性激情的王国的解放者，没有知识，我们希望的 世界不能建立起来。 Knowledge is the liberator of the kingdom of natural forces and destructive passions. Without knowledge, the world we want cannot be built. 10、美好的人生是为爱所激励，为知识所引导的人生。 A good life is one inspired by love and guided by knowledge. 11、在一切道德品质中，善良的本性是世界上最需要的。 Of all moral qualities, the nature of goodness is the most necessary in the world. 12、民主，就是挑选那个受批评的人的过程。 Democracy is the process of selecting the person who is criticized. 13、不要害怕思考，因为思考总能让人有所补益。 Don't be afraid to think, because thinking always helps.
论罗素摹状词理论
罗素摹状词理论初探 一、罗素简介 1.1生平 英国哲学家、数学家、社会学家，也是20世纪西方最著名、影响最大的学者和社会活动家。1890年考入剑桥大学，先后学习数学和哲学专业，取得优异成绩。曾担任剑桥大学讲师，三一学院研究员，英国皇家学会荣誉研究员，多次去美国讲学，演讲，20世纪初，来中国讲学一年。50年代后，主要从事政治活动。 1.2著作 罗素一生著书多达七八十种，论文几千篇，广泛地涉及到哲学、数学、科学、伦理学、社会学、政治、教育、历史、宗教等诸多方面，享有“百科全书”式思想家之称。主要著作有： 二、理论提出背景 罗素一生中有一个基本的思想,即名字的意义是它所直接指称的对象。这个思想使早年的罗素接受了迈农(1853—1920)的对象理论,他认为凡是可想象的词都有意义,即都有所指,都有某种“有”。后来罗素放弃了这种柏拉图主义的立场,转向实在论,这使他产生了既要坚持意义等于所指,又要坚持实在论所必然会遇到的困难。这就是《论指称》一文中所列举的三个著名的困惑。它们成为罗素提出摹状词理论的直接原因。 2.1罗素的逻辑原子主义 罗素强调,名称所指即名称使用者所亲知的对象。 在罗素看来,亲知的对象才是真正的实在,这种“实在”必须在逻辑上是简单的,它只能是构成其它事物的材料,而本身不可能还原为其它的事物,因此,他将实在称 为“单体”(simple)或“逻辑原子”(logical atom),把自己的哲学称作“逻辑原子主义”。罗素的逻辑原子主义哲学旨在揭示语言和事实之间的对应关系,他认为这种对 应关系是一种结构上的对应关系,他称这种关系为“同型性”(isomorphism)或同构关系。在这种关系中,原子命题与原子事实相对应,分子命题与分子事实相对应; 分子命题可分解为原子命题,分子事实可分解为原子事实。任何命题中的每个词与实在的每个成分一一对应,词之间的关系也与实在之间的关系一一对应。罗素的逻辑构造主义一反其早期的柏拉图实在论立场,大胆挥舞“奥卡姆剃刀”,将一切多余的形而上学实体统统剃掉,使我们一开始就建立在那些由直接经验给予的、因而其存在是必不可少的实在上面;然后再努力说明:我们或许可以谈的东西都是通过这些必不可少的实在的关系陈述出来,这样使我们的知识与尽可能少的实在种类发生关系,以便减少错误的可能性。摹状词理论就是这种哲学立场在语言形式分析中的具体体现,或者更确切地说,摹状词理论从语言形式上捍卫了这种哲学立场。 2.2何为存在