新托福TPO27阅读原文及译文(一)
新托福TPO27阅读原文(一)：Crafts in the Ancient Near East
TPO27-1：Crafts in the Ancient Near East
Some of the earliest human civilizations arose in southern Mesopotamia, in what is now southern Iraq, in the fourth millennium B.C.E. In the second half of the millennium, in the south around the city of Uruk, there was an enormous escalation in the area occupied by permanent settlements. A large part of that increase took place in Uruk itself, which became a real urban center surrounded by a set of secondary settlements. While population estimates are notoriously unreliable, scholars assume that Uruk inhabitants were able to support themselves from the agricultural production of the field surrounding the city, which could be reached with a daily commute. But Uruk’s dominant size in the entire region, far surpassing that of other settlements, indicates that it was a regional center and a true city. Indeed, it was the first city in human history.
The vast majority of its population remained active in agriculture, even those people living within the city itself. But a small segment of the urban society started to specialize in nonagricultural tasks as a result of the city’s role as a regional center. Within the productive sector, there was a growth of a variety of specialist craftspeople. Early in the Uruk period, the use of undecorated utilitarian pottery was probably the result of specialized mass production. In an early fourth-millennium level of the Eanna archaeological site at Uruk, a pottery style appears that is most characteristic of this process, the so-called beveled-rim bowl. It is a rather shallow bowl that was crudely made in a mold; hence, in only a limited number of standard sizes. For some unknown reason, many were discarded, often still intact, and thousands have been found all over the Near East. The beveled-rim bowl is one of the most telling diagnostic finds for identifying an Uruk-period site. Of importance is the fact that it was produced rapidly in large amounts, most likely by specialists in a central location.
A variety of documentation indicates that certain goods, once made by a family member as one of many duties, were later made by skilled artisans. Certain images depict groups of people, most likely women, involved in weaving textiles, an activity
we know from later third-millennium texts to have been vital in the economy and to have been centrally administered. Also, a specialized metal-producing workshop may have been excavated in a small area at Uruk. It contained a number of channels lined by a sequence of holes, about 50 centimeters deep, all showing burn marks and filled with ashes. This has been interpreted as the remains of a workshop where molten metal was scooped up from the channel and poured into molds in the holes. Some type of mass production by specialists were involved here.
Objects themselves suggest that they were the work of skilled professionals. In the late Uruk period(3500-3100 B.C.E.), there first appeared a type of object that remained characteristic for Mesopotamia throughout its entire history: the cylinder seal. This was a small cylinder, usually no more than 3 centimeters high and 2 centimeters in diameter, of shell, bone, faience (a glassy type of stoneware), or various types of stones, on which a scene was carved into the surface. When rolled over a soft material----primarily the clay of bullae (round seals), tablets, or clay lumps attached to boxes, jars, or door bolts----the scene would appear in relief, easily legible. The technological knowledge needed to carved it was far superior to that for stamp seals, which had happened in the early Neolithic period (approximately 10,000-5000 B.C.E.). From the first appearance of cylinder seals, the carved scenes could be highly elaborate and refined, indicating the work of specialist stone-cutters. Similarly, the late Uruk period shows the first monumental art, relief, and statuary in the round, made with a degree of mastery that only a professional could have produced.
TPO27-1译文：古代近东的工匠
一些最早的人类文明是在公元前四千年前的南美索不达米亚出现的，现在这片区域处于南伊拉克。在后五百年，在乌鲁克城南方附近，被永久居留民占用的地域在大幅度增长。大部分的增长都发生在乌鲁克城内，使其成为了一个真正的中心诚区，并被一些后续的定居点环绕着。虽然人口估计数通常是不可靠的，但学者们认为乌鲁克居民可以通过日常与周围地区的通勤，得到周围地区产的农业
产品以自给自足。但乌鲁克在整个地区最大，远远超过了其它居民点，这说明它是这个地区的中心，是一个真正的城市。事实上，它是人类历史上的第一个城市。
绝大部分人依然从事农业活动，甚至包括城市居民。但由于该城市是区域的中心，其中的一小部分人开始全心从事非农业工作。生产方面，专业工匠的多样性有了增长。在乌鲁克时期早期，对未装饰的实用陶器的使用可能就是专业化大量生产的结果。在乌鲁克的发现的四千年前早期的Eanna考古遗址中，有一种陶器刻画了这种专业化生产过程的特征，即所谓的斜面边碗。这种碗相当的浅，是利用模具简单制作的;因此，只有有限的几种大小。由于一些未知原因，很多被丢弃的碗还是完整的保存下来了，而在近东的各地有上千件出土。这种碗是最好的判断乌鲁克时期遗址的发现之一。最重要的是这种碗被大量快速生产，最可能由中心位臵的专业工匠制作。
多种文件记录说明，曾经作为义务被家庭制作的商品，在后来由熟练技工制作。一些图画描述了成群的人们，大部分是女人，正在编制纺织品。这种活动，从其后三千年前出土的文献可知，是当时经济的重要部分，并且已被中央管理。并且一个专门从事金属制造的工厂可能也已经小区域的在乌鲁克地区开挖。它包括了一定数量隧道连接着一系列约50厘米深的洞，它们都有燃烧的痕迹，也盛满了灰烬。这被认定是工厂的遗址，在这里融化的金属从隧道中聚集，然后倒入洞里的模具中。这里包括一些由专业人士进行的大量生产活动。
产品的本身就说明了它们是由专业技工制作的。在乌鲁克时期末期首次出现了一种在其整个历史中象征美索不达米亚的物品：圆柱章。它是一个小的圆柱体，一般不高于3厘米，直径2厘米，材料为贝壳，骨头，陶器或是各种石头，在其表面刻着一个场景。当它滚过柔软的材料的时候---主要是被连接在箱子，罐子或
是门栓上的粘土圆章，纪念碑，泥土块--- 这个场景就会清晰简单的出现在上面了。相对于新石器时期(大约是公元前10000-5000年前)的封章，这种雕刻技术依然是很先进的。从圆柱章的出现开始，被雕刻的图像就非常精致精美，这表现了石头切割者的专业技术。同样的，在乌鲁克时期晚期出现了第一个大师级别制作的永存的艺术和雕刻，这是只有非常专业的人才能做出的。
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托福阅读难句专业翻译一
托福阅读难句专业翻译一 1. Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mined the desired effect – success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun – as an actor might. 戴着面具身着盛装的人们，经常扮演各种其他人物、动物或超自然生灵，并且作为一个扮演者所能做的，就是期盼一个在狩猎或战役中获胜、降雨的来临，阳光的重现的结果。 2.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth. 但是这些事实不能解释这个令人感兴趣的问题，就是为什么在一个特殊的靠近他们出生的地方如此的集中了这么多怀孕的鱼龙。 3.A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instruments capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a ship, percussive brilliance. 十九世纪一系列持续的机械进步，包括踏板的传入、金属结构的完善和钢丝最完美的质量，最后产生了一种能容纳无数音调-从最精致的和弦到一个成熟管弦的声音或从一个清澈的歌声到辉煌的敲击乐的效 果-的乐器。 4.Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1972 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. 虽然我们习惯于谈到1972年以前的电影是无声的，但用一句完全感性的话来说电影从来就不是没有声音的。 5.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualifications for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. 多年以来电影音乐的选择程序完全掌握在导演和音乐督导手中，通常拥有这些权力的主要资格并非是自身的技艺和品味而更多的是因为拥有大量的个人音乐素材库。 6.Rather, they were made of a top layer of woolen or glazed worsted wool fabric, consisting of smooth, compact yarn from long wool fibers, dyed dark blue, green, or brown with a bottom layer of a coarser woolen material, either natural or a shade of yellow.
TOEFL阅读高难度句子举例解析及翻译
TOEFL阅读高难度句子举例解析及翻译 摘要：托福阅读中也会出现一些考验大家的托福阅读难句，遇到这些句子的时候，要在平时新托福阅读中注意积累，觉得用得到的要记下来，以下总结的托福阅读中的几个高难度句，希望对大家有所帮助。 "Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships." 很多同学，看到上面的“we view the people as ends in themselves”和“we perceive people as means to ends”就彻底晕菜了。这个其实是可以理解的，这两句话实际是哲学家Kant(康德)关于道德的哲学思想。我们先来看看康德是怎么说的： Humanity According to Kant, there are different ways to state what our duty is. One of them involves the idea of a law. Another involves the idea of humanity, or human reason. Morality says that you should never treat rational human beings merely as means to your end. Whenever you use someone’s skills or services to your own end, you should always also treat that person as an end in him- or herself. 翻译：康德认为，有不同的方式来陈述我们的职责。其中一个是涉及法律。另外一个是涉及人性和人道。道德论认为，你永远不应该把一个理性的人只是作为你达到你的目的中间手段。当你用其他的服务和技能作为你达到你的目的是，你应该尊重他们作为个体而不是你的手段而已。 分析：这里的mean实际上是一个途径，一个中间过程。如果我们把他人视为达成某种目标的中间途径,那就不是道德的。end在这里是终点，自身的结果。只有把他人视为end才是尊重别人才是道德的。 其实这个道理很简单。就是我们常说的：不已结婚为目的谈恋爱都是耍流氓。你不已结婚为目的，就是把女孩当成means了，所以很不道德。你如果是以结婚为目的话，就是当成ends了。
托福阅读真题100篇原文+题目(一)
托福阅读真题100篇原文+题目(一) 托福阅读在备考的过程中，大家可以多找一些真题来进行练习 PASSAGE 1 By the mid-nineteenth century, the term icebox had entered the American language, but icewas still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice tradegrew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by someforward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War (1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880, halfthe ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston andChicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new householdconvenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented. Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenthcentury, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration,was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the icefrom melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping the ice in blankets, which kept theice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve thedelicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox. But as early as 1803, an ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the righttrack. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the villageof Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport hisbutter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff
托福阅读分数对照表
常常有考友询问，为什么托福阅读明明有42个题，总分却只有30分，分数如何计算的呢？其实，每每看到这种问题，小编的内心是疼痛的。 大家准备一个考试，却不看考试指导手册，考得不太理想，简直太正常了。就算天生神勇，也应该有个作战纲领呀！ 打开OG，第一部分就是托福阅读的介绍，编者首先给出了评分标准的表格。 紧接着给出了各类题型的题型解析，这些就是托福阅读的考察内容，众位考友一定要反复研究，在准备考试时，下意识的按照出题者的思路去解题。 那么托福阅读有些什么考察类型？应该怎么解题？
在iBT阅读中，甚至可以扩展到ETS所有考试的阅读题目中，无论是题干还是正确选项，大都能在原文中找出一句话来与之相对应。即题目是原文的意译。这种意译是通过同义词来完成的。即题干中多用近义词来对原文中的句子进行替换，来达到提出问题或者提出正确答案的意思。准确把握意译，是多数题目中准确在原文中定位信息、或者在迷惑选项中选出正确的那个，都有着重要的作用。 1、词汇题 解题方法：若认识，直接解题，没得说；若不认识，就只能推断了。 但是备考阶段最重要的一点。背单词！首先，考托福没有一定的词汇量等于直接酱油了，所以词汇量是一切的基础。 2、指代题 考点：句子直接词之间的关系 解题方法： （1）代词 a. 从句的主语指代主句的主宾语(使用属性判断,不用含义) b. 关系代词指代先行词(插入结构不影响指代关系) c. 重复概念指代: Tom and his cat(就近原则) d. some 和 others （2）名词 a. 优先选择题干的上下意词 m is a kind of M, M是m的上意词 b. 若上下意词不唯一则当作代词指代处理 注意: a.被指代对象往往在代词之前出现 b. 从句开头往后找答案 c. 代词和被指代对象的数性和性质必须一致 d. 指代的传递现象 3、句子简化题 解题方法： （1）确定题干句子中的逻辑成分 逻辑成分主要包括：关联词，动词，状语 而托福最爱考的逻辑主要是：因果，比较、最高级，否定 （2）确定与逻辑相关的语义 要依据最简化原则，抓句子中的逻辑要素。 因果的逻辑要素是：原因结果 比较的逻辑要素是：比较三要素 最高级 否定的逻辑要素是：作用对象 （3）选择与题干逻辑语义一致的选项 先主后次，从逻辑到语义（千万要保证逻辑正确）
托福阅读精选45句长难句翻译
精选45句托福阅读长难句翻译及词汇注释 （涵盖部分句子简化题翻译） 1.The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment（沉积物）-laden（装满的）river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing（沉积）the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope（斜面）. 虽然是较为小型的，但类似的事情也在当下发生，无论什么地方的、大量携带沉积物的河水或溪流从山谷中流至较为平坦的地带，都会随着流速的减慢会沉淀下它的携带物。 河流通常以扇形蔓延，使沉积物以一种平滑的扇形斜面的形式沉积。 2.In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie（躺在某上） what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they ar e now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels （石子，砂砾）and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars（沙洲，堤坝）, will be saturated（浸湿）with groundwater. 在地势较低的城市里，地面上几乎所有曾是河床的地方都被土壤掩埋。如果曾是河床的地方现在处于河流（的上表面）之下，旧时河床的石砾、沙子和沙洲就会被地表水浸湿。 3.But note that porosity（孔隙度）is not the same as permeability（渗透率）, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities（腔，洞）and the crevices （裂缝，缺口）linking them. 但是要注意的在测量水可以从一种材料间通过的轻松程度的时候，孔隙度并不等同于渗透率。这个要依材料中每个独立的洞和裂缝的大小而定。 4.If the pores（毛孔，气孔）are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain（使液体流走）away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films（薄膜）, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. 如果气孔很大，其内部的水分会以滴的形式存在，水分会由于过重、不能被表面张力持住而流走。反之，如果气孔很小，其内部的水分会以薄膜的形式存在，水分太轻以至于不能克服固定它们的表面张力，因此水分就会被以膜的形式保留。 5.But the myths that have grown up around the rites（隆重的仪式或典礼）may continue as part of the group’s oral（口头的; 口述的）tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced（分离）from these rites.
托福写作翻译句子练习
托福写作翻译句子练习集团文件发布号：（9816-UATWW-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DQQTY-
1. 旅游业不但给政府带来税收而且给很多人提供了就业机会。 2. 赌博不但对健康有害，而且会影响家庭和睦。 3. 打工不但能让学生赚零花钱，而且还能让他们学到人际交往的能力。 4. 现在很多学校的校服不但贵，而且还难看，质量不好。 5. 政府不但要多建一些公路，还要鼓励人们多使用公交车。 6. 老人们既不需要很多的钱，也不需要很大的房子，他们最需要的是子女的关心和照顾。 7. 我喜欢旅游，但是，我既没有钱，也没有时间。 8. 在老人院，老人既能够接受到医疗，又能够找到很多有共同话题，共同兴趣的的伙伴。 9. 缴税既是有有利于国家，也是有利于个人。因为政府的税收主要用于公共服务，这个是每个人都会受益的。 10. 打电脑游戏既浪费时间，又有害视力。
11. 打电脑游戏既能使人放松，又能锻炼大脑的灵活性，反映能力 12. 依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。 13. 没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。 14. 许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。 15. 无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。 16. 考虑到问题的严重性，在事态进一步恶化之前，必须采取有效的措施。 17. 尽管这一观点被广泛接受，很少有证据表明飞机会造成灾难性的污染。 18. 没有人能否认：教育是人生最重要的一方面。 19. 事实上，我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。
20. 我们应该不遗余力地保护我们的环境。 21. 现在，人们普遍认为 22. 我同意后者，有如下理由： 23. 这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。 24. 使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康，并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。 25. 尽管自行车有许多明显的优点，但是它也存在它的问题。 26. 在速度和舒适度方面，自行车是无法和汽车、火车这样的交通工具相比的。 27. 通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论：自行车的优点远大于缺点，并且在现代社会它仍将发挥重要作用。 28. 这个问题已经引起了广泛关注。 29. 很多人生活在这样的幻想之中。。。
新托福TPO19阅读原文及译文(一)
新托福TPO19阅读原文(一)：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain TPO19-1：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services
托福TPO52 三篇阅读翻译!!倒序!!
3.Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 在更新世末期（大约公元前10000年），食品生产的技术可能已经在非洲西部和中部 的热带雨林的边缘地区使用，在那里非洲山药等根茎型植物的普遍使用，使人们认识到自己种植食物的好处。这种原始形式的“蔬菜栽培”（块根植物和树本作物的种植）可 能已经成为了一种经济传统，基于这种传统，夏季降水谷类作物的种植也采用嫁接的办法，这种种植技术已经在撒哈拉沙漠南部边界地区的草原南部被使用。随着撒哈拉 沙漠在公元前5000年之后干涸，游牧民族（牧民）向南沿着主要河道迁移到了西非和苏丹的热带草原地带。 直到公元前3000年，正如埃及文明发源于尼罗河流域一样，这些游牧民族定居在了离南部很远的东非高原地区的中心。东非高原是理想的养牛场所，如今也是像马赛人（肯尼亚和坦桑尼亚的游牧狩猎民族）这样的有名的牧牛民族的家园。直到大约公元前3300 年，第一批牧牛人出现时，高地上居住着狩猎采集者，他们居住在平原附近的山区。和其他地方的情况一样，在非洲，牛是饲养起来很费劲的动物。如果要饲养各种规模 的牛群的话，这些牛至少每24小时就需要喝一次水，而且需要大片的牧场。饲养的秘 诀在于仔细挑选放牧场地，尤其是在季节性降雨会导致全年牧草质量有明显差异的环境中。即使是规模适中的牛群也需要大片的土地和相当大的可移动性。为了获得这样的土地，经常需要牛群移动相当远的距离，甚至是从夏季牧场移动到冬季牧场。同时，放牧人不得不让牲畜在有舌蝇出没的地带吃草。唯一能够保护人类和牲畜，不患上昏 睡病（一种由舌蝇传播的疾病）的办法，就是避免在这些地区定居或者放牧——对非 洲东部和中部地区的牧民来说，这个办法严重地限制了他们的迁移。结果是，小牛群迅速地向南部地区迁移，在那里人们可以放牧。在谷类农业占领最南部的撒哈拉沙漠之前，非洲东部和南部稀树草原地区的一些依靠狩猎和采集生活的人可能已经饲养了牛群和其他家养动物，他们将牲畜作为礼物交换，或者通过劫掠放牧的邻居，来获得这些牲畜。 和主流观点相反：没有所谓的“纯粹”的牧民，即只依靠牧群生存的社会。撒哈拉沙漠地 区为了躲避干旱而向南迁移的牧民，几乎肯定的是他们也在种植高粱、小米和其他热带降雨作物。到公元前1500年，谷类作物已经广泛分布于整个撒哈拉沙漠南部的稀树 草原带。小型农业社区遍布在草原和西非东部森林的边界处，这些小型农业社区都依赖于所谓的轮耕法。这种形式的农业包括清理林地，焚烧清理过的地块上的那些被砍倒的灌木丛，将灰烬混合在土壤中，然后在这些制备好的土地上耕种。几年后，土地耗尽了养分，于是农民们继续前进，开辟新的林地，让原来的荒地休耕。轮耕法，也 被称为“刀耕火种”，高度适用于没有犁的稀树草原地区的农民，因为这种方法能够消耗 最少的能量。
新托福TPO11阅读原文及译文(一)
新托福TPO11阅读原文(一):Ancient Egyptian Sculpture TPO11-1：Ancient Egyptian Sculpture In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it
新托福TPO26阅读原文及译文(一)
新托福TPO26阅读原文(一)：能源与工业革命 TPO26-1：nergy and the Industrial Revolution For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine. In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.
新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理
智课网TOEFL备考资料
新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理 摘要：新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理，下面是小马过河为同学们搜集整理的新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理的相关信息，小马小编整理过来，供同学们参考。 Crafts in the Ancient near East古代近东的手工艺 本文为最新的托福真题TPO第27套阅读第一篇，文章反映了托福“古代社会文明”类型的阅读的特点，阅读中的学科词汇很典型，对我们准备托福的阅读有很重要的参考意义，备战托福的同学不可错过。 学科词汇总结words craft手工艺 urban城市的 civilization 文明 settlement定居点 agriculture农业 pottery实用陶器 textile纺织品
mold模具 carve雕刻 relief浮雕 clay粘土 utilitarian实用的 elaborate精心制作的 refined精制的文章翻译translation 一、人类历史上的第一个城市乌鲁克兴起。 Some of the earliest human civilizations arose in southern Mesopotamia, in what is nowsouthern Iraq, in the fourth millennium B.C.E. In the second half of that millennium, in thesouth around the city of Uruk, there was an enormous escalation in the area occupied bypermanent settlements. A large part of that increase took place in Uruk itself, which became areal urban center surrounded by a set of secondary settlements. While population estimatesare notoriously unreliable, scholars assume that Uruk inhabitants were able to supportthemselves from the agricultural production of the field surrounding the city, which could bere ached with a daily commute. But Uruk’s dominant size in the entire region, far surpassingthat of other settlements, indicates that it was a regional center and a true city. Indeed, it wasthe first city in human history.一些人类最早的文明崛起于公元前四千年的米索达比亚的南部(如今的伊拉克南部)。在公元前四千年的后半期，在乌鲁克城的南部附近被永久定居点占据的区域急剧的增加, 大部分的增长都发生在乌鲁克城内，使其成为了一个真正的城市中心并被一些次要的定居点包围着。虽然众所周知人口估计数是不可靠的，学者们认为乌鲁克居民每天往返城市和城市周边的田地,可以通过周边田地的农业生产来