胡壮麟语言学考点重点总结小抄版

1.语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 多产性productivity移位性displacement文化传播性cultural transmission

2.语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual

3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics

4. Origin of language ①the divine-origine theory...②The bow-wow theory..In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that

③The pooh-pooh theory…In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.④The “yo-he-ho” theory….As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.

5.What is linguistics：is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.

6.macrolinguistics宏观语言学①Psycholinguistics 心理语言学②Sociolinguistics 社会语言学

③Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学④Computational linguistics 计算语言学

7.Important distinctions in linguistics ①Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式和规定式②Synchronic vs. diachronic共时和历时③Competence and performance语言能力和语言运用④Langue & parole语言和言语

①The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.

②The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.

③The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.

④The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.

⑤The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.

⑥The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.

⑦The metalingual function means people can use language t o talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.

①Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.

②Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.

③Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.

④Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.

⑤Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.

⑥Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.

语音学Phonetics

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:①Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds②Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech③Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech sounds

Speech organs发音器官：are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream气流发生器官, the producer of voice声音发生器官and the resonating cavities. 声音共振器官

元音The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front,

central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)

辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.

Manners of articulation辅音的发音方式refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished

[p]voiceless bilabial stop [b]voiced bilabial stop

[s]voiceless alveolar fricative[z]voiced alveolar[m] bilabial nasal

[n] alveolar nasal [l] alveolar lateral

[j] palatal approximant [h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant

[i:]high front tense unroundvowel[u]high back lax rounded vowel

[ ]mid central lax unrounded vowel [ ] low back lax rounded vowel

The palce of articulation:refers to the point where a consonant is made

Coarticulation and phonetic transcription协同发音和语音转写

Anticipatory coarticulation预期and Perseverative coarticulation持续

The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription.宽式音标

Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.

Suprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.

音节Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.

开音节Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.

闭音节Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.

Phonological processes音系过程phonological rules 音系规则distinctive features区别特征

重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Intonation语调tone声调

What is a word:is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.

Three senses of “word”①A physically definable unit②words both as a general term and as a specific term③A grammatical unit Identification of words词的识别stability 稳定性Relative uninterruptibility 相对的连续性A minimum free form 最小的自由形式

Classification of words词的分类a.Variable vs. invariable words可变化词和不变b.Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词c.Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词d.Word clas词类

The formation of word 词的形成

Morpheme.词素is the smallest meaning-bearing unit of language是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分

①free morpheme(自由语素):bound morpheme(粘着语素)

②root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干

③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 曲折词缀和派生词缀

Morphology形态学is the immediate concern of a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed

Inflectional morphology 曲折形态学: the study of inflections

Derivational morphology:派生形态学the study of word-formation

Inflection屈折变化is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.

Word formation词的形成refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.

Compond复合词refers to those words that consisit of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.

Derivation派生词shows the relation between roots and suffixes.

Sememe义素the smallest component of meaning

Phoneme音素the smallest meaningful unit of sound

①Lexical change proper特有的词汇变化invention发明法blending混成法abbreviation缩写词acronym缩略语

back-formation 逆构词法analogiical creation 类推构词borrowing借词

②Morpho-syntactical change形态句法变化Morphological change形态变化Syntactical change句法变化

③semantic change语义变化Broadening 词汇扩大Narrowing词汇缩小Meaning shift词义转移Class shift词性转换Folk

etymology俗词源

④Phonological change音位变化Loss脱落Addition添加Assimilation同化Metathesis换位orthographic change 拼写变化Syntax (句法）

Syntactic relation句法关系:positional relation位置关系relation of substitutability替代关系relation of co-occurrence同现关系Grammatical construction语法结构:used to mean any more conventional functions in a language

Endocentric and exocentric constructions向心结构和离心结构

Coordination and subordination并列关系和从属关系

Syntactic function(句法功能）the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used Category(范畴）number,数gender,性case 格and agreement一致关系

Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.

Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.

recursiveness递旧性：conjioning连接embedding嵌入

Semantics语义学refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, semantics is defined as the study of meaning。

Connotation涵义: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning.

Denotation指示: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.

The referential theory指称论the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for。Sense relations涵义关系Synonymy同义关系Antonymy反义关系（gradable等级/ complementary互补/converse反向）Hyponymy 上下文关系

Componential analysis成分分析法defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.

An integrated theory一个综合理论the principle of compositionality组合原则A principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combine.

Logical semantics 逻辑语义学prepositional logic命题逻辑also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.

proposition命题what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference

predicate logic谓词逻辑also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.

Pragmatics语用学is the study of the use of language in communication

①Speech act theory 言语行为理论

1.Performatives and constatives施为句和表述句

Performatives施为句: In speech act theory proposed by John Austin, it’s an utterance which performs an acts。Constatives表述句are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verfiable and constatives bearing the truth-value.

2.A theory of the illocutionary act行事行为理论locutionary act言内行为:illocutionary act言外perlocutionary act言后

②The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论

1.The cooperative principle合作原则

the maxim of quantity 数量的准则the maxim of quality质量的准则

the maxim of relation 关联准则the maxim of manner 方式准则

2.Violation of the maxims准则的违背

3.Characteristics of implicature含义的特征

Calculability 可推导性Cancellability 可取消性

non-detachability 不可分离性non-conventionality 非规约性

③Post-Gricean development 后格莱斯时期的发展

1.Relevance theory关联理论

2.The Q- and R-principles数量原则和关系原则

3.The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息原则和方式原则