采矿工程专业英语(部分重要文章翻译)知识讲解
P1 二、复合难句：
1、Mining may well have been the second of humankind's earliest endeavors--granted that agriculture was the first. The two industries ranked together as the primary or basic industries of early civilization
如果说农业是人类最早的产业（文明）的话，那么采矿就理所当然地排在第二。这两种产业作为人类早期文明最原始或最基本的产业联系在了一起。
2、If we consider fishing and lumbering as part of agriculture and oil and gas production as part of mining , then agriculture and mining continue to supply all the basic resources used by modern civilization
如果我们把捕鱼业和伐木业作为农业的一部分，而石油和天然气产业作为采矿的一部分，那么农业和采矿业至今仍是现代文明所使用的基础资源的支柱
3、Here the term mining is used in its broadest context as encompassing the extraction of any naturally occurring mineral substances-solid , liquid , and gas-from the earth or other heavenly bodies for utilitarian purposes.
这里所说的采矿是指广义上的，因为它包括为实利目的而从地球或其他天体岩石中获取任何天然形成的固态、液态和气态矿物的开采
4、Mine：An excavation made in the earth to extract minerals
采矿：为了开采矿物而在地球上进行的一种挖掘
5、Mining: the activity , occupation , and industry concerned with the extraction of minerals
采矿业：一种与开采矿物有关的活动、职业和产业
6、Mining engineering: the practice of applying engineering principles to the development ,
planning , operation , closure and reclamation of mines.
采矿工程：运用工程原理生产、规划、运作和关闭（充填）以及对矿山再利用（复垦）的一种实践
7、Mineral：A naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and a characteristic chemical composition , crystal form , and physical properties.
矿物：一种天然形成的无机元素或化合物（无机物），它有着有序的内部构造、特有的化学成分、结晶形式和物理性质。
8、Rock：Any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral particles
岩石：任何天然形成的、由一种或多种矿物颗粒组成的集合体
9、Metallic ores：Those ores of the ferrous metals (iron , manganese ,molybdenum and tungsten) , the base metals (copper , lead and tin) , the precious metals (gold , silver, the platinum group metals) and the radioactive minerals( uranium , thorium and radium) .
金属矿：包括黑色金属（铁、锰、钼、钨），基础金属（铜、铅、锡),贵重金属（金、银、铂金类金属）和放射性金属（铀、钍、镭）
10、Nonmetallic minerals：(also known as industrial minerals) The nonfuel mineral ores that are not associated with the production of metals. These include phosphate ,potash , halite , trona ,sand , gravel , limestone , sulfur , and many others.
非金属矿物：（也被称为工业矿物）与金属产品无关的非燃料矿物。它包括磷酸盐、碳酸钾、岩盐、天然碱、砂、砾、石灰岩、硫磺和一些其他的矿石
11、Fossil fuels：(also known as mineral fuels) The organic mineral substances that can be utilized as fuels , such as coal , petroleum , natural gas , coal-bed methane ['mi:θein] （甲烷、沼气）,gilsonite and tar sands.
化石燃料：（也称作矿物燃料）能够被用作燃料的有机矿物质，比如煤、石油、天然气、煤层气
硬沥青和沥青砂
12、These fields of boreholes are also called mines ,as they are the means to mine a mineral deposit ,even if no one enters into the geologic realm of
the deposit
这些有钻孔的领域同样被划归采矿，因为钻孔意味着开采矿床，即使没有人进入这个矿床的地质区域
13、Note that when the economic profitability of a mineral diposit has been established with some con fidence , ore or ore deposit is preferred as the descriptive term for the mineral
occurrence.
注意：当因有些把握而确立了矿床的经济收益时，矿石或矿床就成为矿物出现的首选描述性术语。
14、If the excavation used for mining is entirely open or operated from the surface , it is termed a surface mine. If the excavation consists of openings for human entry below the earth's surface , it is called an underground mine.
如果矿山挖掘是完全露天的或是从地表开始剥离岩石的，那么这种开采方式称为露天开采；
如果挖掘只有方便人们进出地下的开口，则称这种方式为地下开采
露天采矿简介 P21
?1、In open pit mining, a mechanical extraction method, a thick deposit is generally mined in benches or steps, although thin
deposits may require only a single bench or face.
?在露天采矿（一种机械开采法）中，一个厚的矿床通常都是按平台或台阶进行开采的，尽管薄的矿床可能只需要一个简单的平台或工作面。
?2、Hydraulicking utilizes a high-pressure stream of water that is directed against the mineral deposit (normally but not always a
placer) , undercutting it , and causing its removal by the erosive
actions of the water.
水力开采利用一根高压水柱直接冲击矿床（通常不总是砂矿），由于水的侵蚀作
用慢慢切割，进而引起移动剥落
?3、Dredging performed from floating vessels, accomplishes the extraction of the minerals mechanically or hydraulically.
?从漂浮的船上“挖泥”，实现机械或水力的矿物开采。
4、Solution mining includes both borehole mining, such as the methods used to extract sodium chloride or sulfur, and leaching, either through
drill-holes or in dumps or heaps on the surface.
?溶浸采矿包括井眼采矿（比如开采盐和硫磺的方法）和浸滤采矿，或者通过钻孔或者通过倾倒或地面堆浸的方法实现浸滤开采。
?5、An open pit mine is an excavation or cut made at the surface of the ground for the purpose of（为了……目的） extracting ore and
which is open to the surface for the duration of the mine's life.
露天开采是为了开采矿石而在地表进行的一种挖掘或切割，它在采矿的整个
过程中都是露天开放的
?6、The selection of physical design parameters and the scheduling of the ore and waste extraction program are complex engineering
decisions of enormous economic significance.
物理设计参数的选择和矿石及废矿开采工作的进度计划是具有巨大经济意义
的复杂工程抉择
?7、Among these are increasing production, a shift in emphasis from underground to surface mining , a decline in ore grade and quality
of some crude materials , and , with few exceptions , an increase in productivity of labor
?在这些因素中，属于产量增加的因素是：开采重心由地下开采向露天开采的转变，一些原矿矿石在等级和质量方面的下降，以及，少有例外的员工生产力的提高
?8、Paradoxically , productivity has increased even with declining grade and quality ,which is indicative of the rapid technological improvement taking place in open pit mining techniques
?相矛盾的是，甚至在矿石等级和质量下降的情况下生产力一直在提高。这预示着露天采矿技术的改进是显著的。
?9、This pattern of change has permitted production from many formerly uneconomic mineral resources occurring near the surface at a time when higher-grade ores are inadequate to meet increasing demand ?这样的技术革新允许人们在高品位矿石产量不能满足人们日益增长的矿产品需求时开采原来认为不经济的近地表的矿藏。
?10、The conclusions , although valid ，are sometimes outweighed by
a new set of factors that arise from differences in the physical
character of mineral deposits available for future exploitation and from changes in technology , markets , and public policy
?总之，露天采矿虽然是很有效的，但有时也会因为一些新产生的因素而被否定掉。这些因素是：用于以后开采的矿床在物理特性方面的差异和开采技术、市场以及国家政策的变化。
?11、The most economic final pit design often depends on factors that are largely outside the mining engineer's control , such as the geometric outline of the ore body , the distribution of ore within the ore body , topography ,slope angles , etc.
最经济实惠的最终开采方案通常取决于采矿工程师所远远不能掌控的因素，比如矿体的几何形状、矿石在矿体内的分布情况，地形（或地志资料）、边坡角等等
?12、A bench may be defined as a ledge that forms a single level of operation above which mineral or waste materials are mined back to a bench face
?工作平台可以这样定义：能够为矿石或废石回采到平台工作面而形成一个单独的作业水平的“壁架”（是指为矿石和废石回采到它上面的一个单独
的作业水平的狭长突出部分---- “壁架”）。
?13、The bench slope is the angle , measured in degrees , between the horizontal (['h?ri'z?nt?l] ) and an imaginary line joining the
bench toe and crest
台阶坡面角（平台坡度）是用度数计量的角度，是平台坡顶与坡底间假想
的一条连线和水平线之间的夹角。
14、Pit limits are the vertical and lateral e16、A spiral system is an arrangement（布置） whereby（凭，靠） the haul road is arranged spirally （成螺旋形地） along the perimeter walls（围墙，坑壁） of the pit so that the gradient（坡度） of the road is more or less uniform（相同） from the top to the bottom of the pit
螺旋系统是一种使运输道路凭借它沿着坑壁
呈螺旋状（上升或下降）的设计系统，这样使得运输道路的坡度从底部到顶部几
乎不变。
?17、A zigzag system is an arrangement in which the road surmounts[s ?:'maunt] （克服） the steep grade（陡坡） of a pit wall by zigzagging , generally on the footwall（底帮） side of the pit.
之字形系统（或回返式系统）是一种使运输道路呈之字形从而克服台阶坡度的
设计系统，它通常是布置在矿坑的底帮上
?18、The grade may be defined as the inclination（斜坡） of the road in terms of（依据） degrees from the horizontal or percentage of
rise to the horizontal
?运输道路的坡度可以定义为：道路从水平面上上升的度数或上升到水平面的百分比19、The angle of repose or angle of rest is the maximum
slope（最大坡度） at which a heap of （许多）loose material will
stand without sliding
静止角（或休止角、安息角）是指大量松散物质能够保持稳定而不滑落的最
大坡度角（松散物锥面长边的坡面线与水平线间的夹角）。
?20、The sub-outcrop（隐伏露头） depth represents（代表） the depth of waste that has to be removed before any ore is exposed（暴露）.
This waste is often referred to as preproduction stripping （前
期剥离）
?隐伏露头的深度代表着开采到矿石之前需要剥离的废料的深度。这种废石的剥离通常被称为前期剥离
xtent to which the open pit mining may be economically conducted 矿坑境界是指露天采矿中可以经济地开采的纵向和横向的限度。
?15、The overall pit slope angle is the angle at which the wall of an open pit stands ，as measured between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the top bench crest with the bottom bench
toe.
露天矿的最终边坡角是露天矿边帮的角度，它是在水平线与连接最上一个平台的顶部和最下一个平台的底部的虚拟连线之间测量的。
3.1 Open Pit Mining Design P34
露天采矿设计
二、复合难句
1、Exploration一-Drill and sample the mineralised and potentially mineralised（成矿的、矿化的）areas utilizing RC or Diamond Core methods
勘探——是一种利用反循环钻或金刚石岩心钻，对矿化带和潜在矿化带钻孔并取样的方法
2、There is a minimum mining width for most gear , such as the bucket of a 100t excavator is liable to be around 2m or more wide.
对于大部分设备来说都有一个最小开采宽度，比如100t的挖掘机铲斗的最小开采宽度就可能是2m左右或更宽一点。
3、Painting or using tape to define the various material types that need to be dumped in discrete locations.
（他们）绘制（示意图）或使用卷尺来确定需要单独处置的各种矿物材料形态。
4、The role of the spotter is to ensure that the ore is dug in the correct manner and truck drivers realise that they are carrying ore or waste.
监矿人员的作用就是保证以正确的方式开采矿石，并确保让卡车司机知道他们拉的是矿石还是废料。
5、Optimal pits may vary according to the owners requirements , ie a certain production rate is required , a certain life span（服务年限）is required , specific grades are required or more commonly certain costs are required
最佳矿坑也会根据矿主的要求而有所调整，这些要求就是：对一定的生产率、一定的开采服务年限、特殊的矿石品位或是更常见的某些费用（成本）等等的要求。
6、Often mines are formed as a series in intermeshed cutbacks
通常矿山是因一系列密切配合的削减而完成的。
7、le a small pit is started that targets high grade ore close to the surface , this gets ore to the mill quickly and starts bringing in revenue
就是从一个小的露天矿坑开始，目标是近地表的富矿，这样很快就获得矿石运到选矿厂进行破碎、加工、分选等，因而矿山很快开始获得收益。
8、While the first pit is being mined , cutbacks are started usually on the walls of the first pit.
当人们还在第一个矿坑开采的时候，就又从第一个矿坑的坑壁上开始削减（挖出入沟和开段沟降到第二个工作平台上进行开采）。
9、These increase the size of the pit until the final optimal pit is formed and the mine is complete.
这些做法不断扩大矿坑的尺寸直到最终形成最佳矿坑因而矿山开采完毕。
10、Reblock（重组块）to coarser（粗糙的）resolution（分辩率）. Allows faster processing with minimal impact on accuracy.
粗分辨率的重组块，允许随着最小的精度影响而快速处理（随着在精度上的最小影响而快速处理）
11、Assess raw data to decide what mining method the ore body suits , and what mineable size it is.
评估原始数据以决定适合矿体的开采方法，以及可开采的范围大小。
12、Optimise using Whittle software（削减软件）or other optimisers（优化器）over a varieties of cost factors.
在各种成本因素上使用削减软件或其它的优化器进行优化。
13、Internal cutbacks can be sought by evaluating the smaller shells within the final shell.
通过评估最终矿坑之内的较小坑形来确定内部削减量。
14、Items to be looked at include volume of ore , volume of waste and clearance between the smaller shell and the final pit
要考虑的因素包括矿石量、废石量以及较小坑形和最终矿坑的间距。
15、There is an art to designing pits that are both practical and productive.
有一项辅助性的技术用于设计既实用又颇具生产力的矿坑。
（设计既实用又颇具生产力的矿坑是一门艺术）
16、Computer applications have already resulted in （导致）surface mines being designed more rapidly , or resulted in better designs in the same time.
计算机技术的应用早已使露天开采设计更加快捷，或在相同的时间内获得更好的设计
17、As mine design rates increase and the design itself is more automated , it becomes easier and faster to redesign operations.
随着采矿设计效率（等级、比率）的提高以及设计本身的自动化，重新设计运作也就变得更加便捷
18、Berms and batters. Safe slopes must be assessed in terms of geomechanics to be stable at the prescribed slope angles.
小平台及其边坡（斜坡）。为了在规定的坡度角内边坡是稳定的，必须根据地质力学（上的要求）对安全边坡进行评估。
19、The overall slope , this is the slope given（考虑）from the bottom of the pit to the crest which
includes the ramp in the pit walls.
最终边坡，这是要从矿坑底部考虑到顶部的边坡，包括坑壁上的斜坡。（从最下一个台阶的坡底线到最上一个台阶的坡顶线之间的假想斜坡面与水平面的夹角？）
20、The inter-berm slope which is the slope between the berms. This is steeper as it is a small height
内部小平台边坡是小平台之间的边坡。这样的边坡坡度很陡，因为它只有一个小的高度。21、Ramps should be built at a 1 in 10 or 1 in 12 slope to allow reasonable truck speed both up and down（上上下下）the ramp.
为了允许卡车在上下坡道时能够有适当的速度，坡道的高度与水平距之比应该设为1:10或1:12
22、Ramps should be smooth to avoid gear changes in the truck which slow the truck , wear running gear and risk material spilling off the back of the truck
坡道应该是平整流畅的，以避免卡车内的变速齿轮阻碍卡车，损坏驱动装置而致矿石从卡车尾部滑落的危险。
23、To meet this end（目标）the designs are usually based on optimized pit shells provided by mining software.
为了达到这个目标，通常需要根据采矿设计软件提供的最佳矿坑的形状来做设计。
地下采矿方法简介 P86
地下开采方法根据对围岩和顶板的管理可分为支护、不支护、崩落。采矿方法主要涉及采场的布局尺寸；管理矿山运营。不支护采矿方法通常用于开采水平层状矿床（微倾斜或急倾斜）和矿岩强度大的矿床，该方法不采用人工矿柱支撑空区，因此命名为不支护开采方法。然而矿上一般采用锚喷支护。房柱法是最常见的一种不支护开采方法。使用的基本条件是水平矿床或层状矿床。例如煤矿、天然碱、石灰矿和食盐矿。支撑式开采；留具有一定设计规格的自然矿柱支撑顶板。全面采矿法与房柱法相似，应用于开采不规则薄的非煤矿体，矿柱可以因地制宜，一般低品位矿段多布置矿柱，以便采出更多高品位矿石。在美国水平矿床几乎都采用这两种方法。在整体矿产资源储量中，采用全面采矿法和房柱法开采的比例也是非常高。另外两种应用急倾斜矿床的不支护采矿方法；留矿法和分段矿房法。留矿法；首先爆破开挖贯穿矿房全长的水平切割巷道，沿水平切割巷道向上依次开采。对矿石破碎的一部分可以在采场累积为矿工提供作业平台，采场中积压的矿石然后通过漏斗放出。分段矿房法不同于留矿采矿法；它提供底部切割巷道并垂着巷道爆破。在这种方式中，采场的开采水平从一端到另一端。留矿法比分段矿房法更适合回采坚硬矿石和软弱围岩的矿床。
支护采矿方法通常用于软岩结构矿山。充填采矿法是最常见的方法，主要用于急倾斜矿床。充填在实践中主要是上向充填和下向充填。每个水平切割巷道都被充填，各种各样的填充材料充满空区来支持围岩。填充材料可以是废石，尾矿，
尾矿胶结物，或其它合适的材料。充填是一种更适用于脉状矿床的采矿法。它是最近发展并使用的一种新方法。方框支架充填采矿法也需要回填矿井空区；然而，它主要依靠木材来支撑采空区。由于劳动力成本高，这种采矿方法正迅速消失在美国北部。然而，在开采高品位矿石或在劳动力成本低的国家，它仍然被使用。撑木回采法是一种支持采矿方法，它使用木材或锚网支护，开采倾斜矿体。这是一个可应用于矿体倾角在10°—45°之间的回采方法。它通常采用废人工矿柱来支撑顶板。
崩落采矿法形式多样灵活，也比较通用。它主要涉及崩落矿石和覆岩。通常地面会发生正常沉降。长壁开采法也属于崩落法，它特别适合于开采具有一定埋深的水平矿床，通常在煤矿中使用。在这种方法中，随着开采的进行，保持一个合理的工作面长度，随着上覆岩层的塌陷，进而促进煤层本身的破坏。分段崩落法是另一种不同的开采方法。它用于开采倾斜板状或块状矿床。随着开采水平的向下进行，每个新阶段的矿石都会在采场中被崩落，矿石被回收而废石被遗弃在后面。自然崩落法是一种大型或大规模开采方法，具有很高的生产效率，成本低，主要用于储量巨大的地下矿床开采。它是最适用于矿岩强度在弱或中等的矿山，开挖后自然落顶。因为它们具有很高生产率，所以这两种崩落开采法得到了广泛的应用。
除了这些传统的方法，采矿创新的方法也不断发展。这是适用于特殊的矿体赋存或采矿设备。例如自动化，气化或液化，深海采矿。
房柱法 P89
Bullock在1982年提出房柱法,它指在矿房与矿柱里回采矿物，在美国大多数地下开采应用柱式开采。他预测60%的非煤矿物（储量约为7亿吨到8亿吨）和90%的煤矿（储量约为26亿吨到29亿吨）采用房柱法开采。这种状况到现在也有一定的适应性，该采矿法不仅投资少产能高容易实现机械化，而且设计这样的矿山相对简单。
房柱法（见下图5.2）是一种利用原始矿柱支撑顶板提供回采的采矿方法，应用于赋存近水平且具有合理的地质环境的矿体。矿石从矩形矿房或者矿体入口处采出；留部分矿石以矿柱的形式支撑帮墙顶板。房柱进行简单的规划和处理以一定的规律布置。它们可以以任何的形状存在，一般而言圆形和长方形较为常见。矿房和矿柱的尺寸有各种设计因素决定。这些因素包括帮墙的稳定性和矿主的强度，以及矿体厚度和埋深。合理的设计是最多的采出矿石和提供相适应的安全工作条件。遗留在矿柱内的矿石通常认为是不可以回采的，只有在充填采矿法中可以回采。
早在1982年Hamrin和Hittman等人就对柱式采矿法的适用性做出了研究。柱式采矿法适用于水平或者倾角小于30°的倾斜和微倾斜矿体。（该采矿法）一个重要的要求是帮墙在短时期内具有相对的稳定性，或者在锚杆支护下不发生片
落。锚杆支护在房柱采矿方法中应用广泛。该采矿方法特别适用于层状矿床，矿体厚度在2-6m，如煤矿、食盐矿、石灰矿、碳酸钾矿等。
房柱法采矿工艺
房柱法的纵剖面图和水平面图通常为矩形或规则的图形。硬岩水平矿体开采中这种方法与全面采矿法十分相似。在许多（采矿设计）案例中，矿山设计可能主要考虑矿石品位的控制，而地面工业广场布置和通风是次要因素，导致形成一种形状不规则的矿房和低品位不回采的矿柱。
硬岩房柱式开采是一个有效的以低角度水平挖掘硐室并留下矿柱的空场（采场和房柱）采矿方法
在矿物价值变化时，这种采矿方法类似于古老的掠夺式开采；肆意追逐开采富含价值高的矿区。在矿石价值一致是，采矿布局可以是规整的。该采矿方法不同于大多数硬岩采矿方法重力流是有限的，矿石必须在工作面爆破后装在并从该点输出。大规模生产中，这需要装载机和矿用汽车的配合或者采用铲运机。
柱式回采方法有很多种，最常用的是全面分层采矿法、上向空场法、分段矿房法，阶段矿房法；前者矿房采矿体的垂直全高，留围岩或者没有经济价值的矿石在顶、底板内。全面分层采矿法可能合理的安全采高为8—10m。这主要取决于钻孔和支护设备。除此之外，都使用分段空场法。
生产周期
对于硬岩矿体基本周期与硬岩隧道开挖的四个工序相似，（1）标记处爆破孔，通常是一个楔形图案（2）通风以消除炮烟。（3）引入装岩机，裝岩。（4）规模的掌子面和侧帮，并在必要的情况下锚索顶板。在这些元素之间的相互作用使一个关键路径有相当的复杂性。根据单位时间的装载量和钻孔速率以及这些工序的任务时间并估测辅助工序的任务时间来确定周期时间。辅助工序如运输、通风紧张可能是由于管理组织时发生了严重冲突。
工作面布置
在非煤矿山中，典型的矿房法平面布置解释如下；在常规的回采工作掘进一个单行高4.5m左右宽约10.5m，延伸到矿体内4—5个矿房的水平运输巷道。这将作为主要运输大巷。矿柱最终留在水平运输巷道的侧壁或者矿房之间。首先钻取爆破孔，当只有一个暴露面或者自由面作为推进工作面时，一些切割形式经常被应用，鲜为人知的是单一自由面布孔。在高4.5m宽10.5m的工作面布置60-70个，直径为8mm孔深3—3.6m的炮孔，如果具有1个以上的自由面，这样的自由面一般为裂隙或裂横。在自由面上钻一组小倾角的炮孔。与单一自由面相比，这种情况下需要较少的装药量和炮孔数，一般来说掏槽眼为楔型或V型。
钻孔进行液压凿岩台车安装；荷载通常是由蟹爪式装载机，虽然在现代矿山，无轨铲运机的车辆进行负载转移提高它在哪里重新加载到卡车或输送机。
自动化专业英语课文重点句子翻译(精)
In the case of a resistor, the voltage-current relationship is given by Ohm’s law, which states that the voltage across the resistor is equal to the current through the resistor multiplied by the value of the resistance. 就电阻来说, 电压—电流的关系由欧姆定律决定。欧姆定律指出:电阻两端的 电压等于电阻上流过的电流乘以电阻值。 2]It may be that the inductor voltage rather than the current is the variable of interest in the circuit. 或许在电路中,人们感兴趣的变量是电感电压而不是电感电流。 Viewed in this light, it will be found that the analysis of three-phase circuits is little more difficult than that of single-phase circuits. 这样看来,三相电路的分析比单相电路的分析难不了多少。 At unity power factor, the power in a single-phase circuit is zero twice each cycle. 在功率因数为 1时,单相电路里的功率值每个周波有两次为零。 It should be noted that if the polarity of point Awith respect to N ( is assumed for the positive half-cycle, then when used in the same phasor diagram should be drawn opposite to, or 180? out of phase with, . 应该注意,如果把 A 点相对于 N 的极性(定为正半周,那么在用于同一相量图中时就应该画得同相反,即相位差为 180? One problem with electronic devices corresponding to the generalized amplifiers is that the gains, AU or AI, depend upon internal properties of the two-port system. 对应于像广义放大器这样的电子装置,一个问题就是增益 AU 或者 AI ,它们取决于两输入端系统的内部特性。
专业英语第一篇文章翻译
Historical Development of Matertials and Technology The common engineering materials include metals, cementing materials, concrete building stones, clay products, insulating materials, timber. Some of them are described here from the stand-point of occurrence, manufacture, properties, methods of testing, and use. The development of materials with improved properties is a vital phase of engineering. Progress in engineering construction has been dependent on the availability of materials of suitable physical properties in large quantities; for example, the development of the modern automobile was critically dependent on availability of high quality alloy steels, and the all-metal airplane was made possible by the development of light weight high-strength alloys. ◆Phase: 相；阶段。 ◆a distinct period or stage in a process of change or forming part of something's development Example： phase two of the development is in progress. ◆第二阶段开发正在进行中。 ◆Vital: 必要的，必不可少的。 ◆it is vital that the system is regularly maintained.这个系统有必要 经常维修。
《机械工程专业英语教程》课文翻译
Lesson 1 力学的基本概念 1、词汇： statics [st?tiks] 静力学；dynamics动力学；constraint约束；magnetic [m?ɡ＇netik]有磁性的；external [eks＇t?:nl] 外面的, 外部的；meshing啮合；follower从动件；magnitude [＇m?ɡnitju:d] 大小；intensity强度，应力；non-coincident [k?u＇insid?nt]不重合；parallel [＇p?r?lel]平行；intuitive 直观的；substance物质；proportional [pr?＇p?:??n?l]比例的；resist抵抗，对抗；celestial [si＇lestj?l]天空的；product乘积；particle质点；elastic [i＇l?stik]弹性；deformed变形的；strain拉力；uniform全都相同的；velocity[vi＇l?siti]速度；scalar[＇skeil?]标量；vector[＇vekt?]矢量；displacement代替；momentum [m?u＇ment?m]动量； 2、词组 make up of由……组成；if not要不，不然；even through即使，纵然； Lesson 2 力和力的作用效果 1、词汇： machine 机器；mechanism机构；movable活动的；given 规定的，给定的，已知的；perform执行；application 施用；produce引起，导致；stress压力；applied施加的；individual单独的；muscular [＇m?skjul?]]力臂；gravity[ɡr?vti]重力；stretch伸展，拉紧，延伸；tensile[tensail]拉力；tension张力，拉力；squeeze挤；compressive 有压力的，压缩的；torsional扭转的；torque转矩；twist扭，转动；molecule [m likju:l]分子的；slide滑动; 滑行；slip滑，溜；one another 互相；shear剪切；independently独立地，自立地；beam梁；compress压；revolve (使)旋转；exert [iɡ＇z?:t]用力，尽力，运用，发挥，施加；principle原则, 原理，准则，规范；spin使…旋转；screw螺丝钉；thread螺纹； 2、词组 a number of 许多；deal with 涉及，处理；result from由什么引起；prevent from阻止，防止；tends to 朝某个方向；in combination结合；fly apart飞散； 3、译文： 任何机器或机构的研究表明每一种机构都是由许多可动的零件组成。这些零件从规定的运动转变到期望的运动。另一方面，这些机器完成工作。当由施力引起的运动时，机器就开始工作了。所以，力和机器的研究涉及在一个物体上的力和力的作用效果。 力是推力或者拉力。力的作用效果要么是改变物体的形状或者运动，要么阻止其他的力发生改变。每一种
英语专业 综合英语翻译句子答案
1.Our big old house was closely related with the joys and sorrows of four generations. 2.I planted these roses a long, long time ago before your mother was born. 3.Many sons left home to fight against the Fascist Nazi. 4.Take the first friendly greeting and always keep it deep in your heart. 1.He has prepared answers to the questions that he expects to confront during the interview. 2.His sad story touched us so deeply that we nearly cried. 3.The two of them are walking hand in hand along the river bank, chatting, laughing, and looking happy. 4.When he heart the exciting news, tears of joy welled up in his eyes. 5.People from Shanghai can understand Suzhou dialect with ease, for Shanghai dialect and Suzhou dialect have much in common. 6.Henry and his wife are looking into the possibility of buying a new house within three years. 7.He finally gave in to his daughter’s repeated requests to further her education abroad. 8.We locked all our valuables away before we went on holiday. 9.Although we have parted from eah other, I hope that we will remain good friends and that we will care for and help each other just as we did in the past. 10.At that critical moment, the army commander summoned all the officers to work out new strategies and tactics which would make it possible to conquer the enemy. Unit 2 1.A gracious manner adds the greatest splendour to your image. 2.I firmly believed the note my guest sent me didn’t take long to write. 3.The simple phrase “Excuse me.” made most of your irritation disappear. 4.Being on time is a virtue which belongs not only to the past but also to the present. 5.Y ou shouldn’t accept the other person’s presence without thinking of its importance. 6.Good manners produce the same feelings or actions in others. 1.I am sorry I am late; I was at a meeting and couldn’t get away. 2.At the concert whnever a singer finished singing a beautiful song, the audience would burst into loud cheers to show their appreciation. 3.As a stylish dresser, she is always wearing stylish clothes, but she seldom cares about what she eats or drinks. 4.The nurse tells me that the doctors have done wonders for your heart disease. 5.When awarding the prize, the chairman complimented the winner on his great contribution to mankind. 6.This problem has bothered the experts for many years. 7.The crowd of demonstrators melted away when the police arrived. 8.Since punctuality is a good habit, we should pay much attention to it and make great efforts to cultivate this good habit. 9.The old man cherishes that girl, as if she were his own daughter. 10.It is just a routine physical checkup, nothing to get worried about.
专业英语课文翻译
United 1 材料科学与工程 材料在我们的文化中比我们认识到的还要根深蒂固。如交通、房子、衣物，通讯、娱乐和食物的生产，实际上，我们日常生活中的每一部分都或多或少地受到材料的影响。历史上社会的发展、先进与那些能满足社会需要的材料的生产及操作能力密切相关。实际上，早期的文明就以材料的发展程度来命名，如石器时代，铜器时代。早期人们能得到的只有一些很有限的天然材料，如石头、木材、粘土等。渐渐地，他们通过技术来生产优于自然材料的新材料，这些新材料包括陶器和金属。进一步地，人们发现材料的性质可以通过加热或加入其他物质来改变。在这点上，材料的应用完全是一个选择的过程。也就是说，在一系列非常有限的材料中，根据材料的优点选择一种最适合某种应用的材料。直到最近，科学家才终于了解材料的结构要素与其特性之间的关系。这个大约是过去的 60 年中获得的认识使得材料的性质研究成为时髦。因此，成千上万的材料通过其特殊的性质得以发展来满足我们现代及复杂的社会需要。很多使我们生活舒适的技术的发展与适宜材料的获得密切相关。一种材料的先进程度通常是一种技术进步的先兆。比如，没有便宜的钢制品或其他替代品就没有汽车。在现代，复杂的电子器件取决于所谓的半导体零件. 材料科学与工程有时把材料科学与工程细分成材料科学和材料工程学科是有用的。严格地说，材料科学涉及材料到研究材料的结构和性质的关系。相反，材料工程是根据材料的结构和性质的关系来设计或操纵材料的结构以求制造出一系列可预定的性质。从功能方面来说，材料科学家的作用是发展或合成新的材料，而材料工程师是利用已有的材料创造新的产品或体系，和/或发展材料加工新技术。多数材料专业的本科毕业生被同时训练成材料科学家和材料工程师。“structure”一词是个模糊的术语值得解释。简单地说，材料的结构通常与其内在成分的排列有关。原子内的结构包括介于单个原子间的电子和原子核的相互作用。在原子水平上，结构包括原子或分子与其他相关的原子或分子的组织。在更大的结构领域上，其包括大的原子团，这些原子团通常聚集在一起，称为“微观”结构，意思是可以使用某种显微镜直接观察得到的结构。最后，结构单元可以通过肉眼看到的称为宏观结构。 “Property”一词的概念值得详细阐述。在使用中，所有材料对外部的刺激都表现出某种反应。比如，材料受到力作用会引起形变，或者抛光金属表面会反射光。材料的特征取决于其对外部刺激的反应程度。通常，材料的性质与其形状及大小无关。实际上，所有固体材料的重要性质可以概括分为六类：机械、电学、热学、磁学、光学和腐蚀性。对于每一种性质，其都有一种对特定刺激引起反应的能 力。如机械性能与施加压力引起的形变有关，包括弹性和强度。对于电性能，如电导性和介电系数，特定的刺激物是电场。固体的热学行为则可用热容和热导率来表示。磁学性质
冶金专业英语词汇整理
v1.0 可编辑可修改 0000 专业英语词汇 1 总论 采矿mining 地下采矿underground mining 露天采矿open cut mining, open pit mining, surface mining 采矿工程mining engineering 选矿（学）mineral dressing, ore beneficiation, mineral processing 矿物工程mineral engineering 冶金（学）metallurgy 过程冶金（学）process metallurgy 提取冶金（学）extractive metallurgy 化学冶金（学）chemical metallurgy 物理冶金（学）physical metallurgy 金属学Metallkunde 冶金过程物理化学physical chemistry of process metallurgy 冶金反应工程学metallurgical reaction engineering 冶金工程metallurgical engineering 钢铁冶金（学）ferrous metallurgy, metallurgy of iron and steel 有色冶金(学)nonferrous metallurgy 真空冶金(学)vacuum metallurgy 等离子冶金(学)plasma metallurgy 微生物冶金(学)microbial metallurgy 喷射冶金(学)injection metallurgy 钢包冶金(学)ladle metallurgy 二次冶金(学)secondary metallurgy 机械冶金(学)mechanical metallurgy 焊接冶金(学)welding metallurgy 粉末冶金(学)powder metallurgy 铸造学foundry 火法冶金(学)pyrometallurgy 湿法冶金(学)hydrometallurgy 电冶金(学)electrometallurgy 氯冶金(学)chlorine metallurgy 矿物资源综合利用engineering of comprehensive utilization of mineral resources 中国金属学会The Chinese Society for Metals 中国有色金属学会The Nonferrous Metals Society of China 2 采矿 采矿工艺mining technology 有用矿物valuable mineral 冶金矿产原料metallurgical mineral raw materials 矿床mineral deposit 特殊采矿specialized mining 海洋采矿oceanic mining, marine mining 矿田mine field 矿山mine 露天矿山surface mine 地下矿山underground mine 矿井shaft 矿床勘探mineral deposit exploration 矿山可行性研究mine feasibility study 矿山规模mine capacity 矿山生产能力mine production capacity 矿山年产量annual mine output 矿山服务年限mine life 矿山基本建设mine construction 矿山建设期限mine construction period 矿山达产arrival at mine full capacity 开采强度mining intensity 矿石回收率ore recovery ratio 矿石损失率ore loss ratio 工业矿石industrial ore 采出矿石extracted ore 矿体orebody 矿脉vein 海洋矿产资源oceanic mineral resources 矿石ore 矿石品位ore grade 岩石力学rock mechanics
服装专业外语重点段落翻译
Fashion,which is as old as time and as new as tomorrow,is one of the most powerful forces in our lives .It influences what we wear,the way we talk,the foods we eat,the way we live,how and where we travel,what we travel,what we look at,and what we listen to.Fashion is what lead us todiscard a product that is still useful but is no longer ―in‖.It is also what makes us sometimes wear more clothes than we may actually need,and sometimes less than is needed to product us from the ccold or the sun. 流行是这样一种事物，是我们抛弃了还可以使用，但不再时髦的产品。有时候使我们穿比我们真正穿的衣服多，有时候比我们穿抵御严寒酷暑的少。 If there is one absolute constant pertaining to fashion,it is the fact that it is always changing-sometimes rapidly,sometimes slowly,but it is never static or dormant.This element of change is recognized in the definitions of fashion itself cited earlier,by the use of such words as ―prevailing‖or ―a given period of time.‖To ignore the element of change is like looking at a still photograph in place of a motion picture.The still tells you what is happening here and now ;the motion picture shows you what came before and what may lie ahead. 如果存在着一种符合流行的绝对永恒，那就是流行是永远变化着的这一事实，（这种变化）时快时慢，但绝不会固定下来或呈休止状态。 “Fashion is a social phenomenon which reflects the same continuing change that rides through any given age .‖Change in fashion ,he emphasized,‘correspond with the subtle and often hidden network of forces that operate on society……’ “流行是一种社会现象，它反映了任何特定年代同样都要经历的持续变化。‖他强调说：“流行变迁与那些作用于社会的影响力量所具有的微妙，而又常常是暗藏着的系统是一致的。”It is only in restrospect that fashion changes seem marked or sudden .Autually ,they come about as a result of a series of gradual shifts from one season to the next.For example ,when women’s skirts began inching up from midcalf in the 1960s,this gradual shortening was not particularly noticeable at first .It was only when skirts moved thigh-high,in the form of minis and micro-minis ,that people took notice of the approaching extreme.Similarly,when men begin to abandon ultrannarrow ties and suit lapels in favor of more and more width,the changs are not noticed at first. 只有当追溯过去的时候，流行的变迁才显得特别引人注目或突然，实际上，这些变迁的发生是从一个季节到另一个季节的一系列逐渐变化的结果。例如，女裙的逐渐变短的时候并没有被注意到，。 ………………………………………………………… Color can be the basis for a whole group or line .It is the first element to which consumers respond .People relate personally to color,usually either selecting or rejecting a garment beccause of its ccolor appeal.Therefore,designers must cconsider their customers and provide colors that are both appealing and flattering. 色彩是整个款式系列中的基本要素，它是能够引起顾客回应的第一要素。人们把色彩和个人联系起来，他们往往根据颜色来选择或拒绝一件衣服，因此设计师必须考虑他们的顾客，并且提供出令他们喜爱和满意的色彩，消费群体。 In clothing,neutrals such as beige,tan,brown,white ,gray,and black are even more popular than the ccolors just mentioned.The reason is probably that they present a pleasing background for the wearer without completing for attention. Neutrals are part of every season‖s fashion picture ,as either a strong fashion statement or a way to round out a color story. 在服装中，中色调例如灰中色，深褐，褐色，白灰和黑色，甚至还有比刚刚提到的更多的
计算机专业英语课文翻译部分(第四版)
1.2 总线互连 总线是连接两个或多个设备的通信通路。总线的关键特征是，它是一条共享传输介质。多个设备连接到总线上，任一个设备发出的信号可以为其他所有连接到总线上的设备所接收。如果两个设备同时传送，它们的信号将会重叠，引起混淆。因此，一次只能有一个设备成功地（利用总线）发送数据。 典型的情况是，总线由多条通信通路或线路组成，每条线(路)能够传送代表二进制1和0的信号。一段时间里，一条线能传送一串二进制数字。总线的几条线放在一起能同时并行传送二进制数字。例如, 一个8位的数据能在8条总线线上传送。 计算机系统包含有多种不同的总线，它们在计算机系统层次结构的各个层次提供部件之间的通路。连接主要计算机部件(处理机, 存储器, I/O)的总线称为系统总线。系统总线通常由50~100条分立的(导)线组成。每条线被赋予一个特定的含义或功能。虽然有许多不同的总线设计，但任何总线上的线都可以分成三个功能组：数据线、地址线和控制线。此外可能还有为连接的模块提供电源的电源线。 数据线提供系统模块间传送数据的路径，这些线组合在一起称为数据总线。典型的数据总线包含8、16或32根线，线的数量称为数据总线的宽度。因为每条线每次传送1位，所以线的数目决定了每次能同时传送多少位。数据总线的宽度是决定系统总体性能的关键因素。 地址线用于指定数据总线上数据的来源和去向。例如，如果处理机希望从存储器中读一个字的数据，它将所需要字的地址放在地址线上。显然，地址总线的宽度决定了系统最大可能的存储器容量。 控制线用来控制对数据线和地址线的访问和使用。由于数据线和地址线被所有部件共享，因此必须用一种方法来控制它们的使用。控制信号在系统模块之间传送命令和定时信息。定时信息指定了数据和地址信息的有效性，命令信号指定了要执行的操作。 大多数计算机系统使用多总线，这些总线通常设计成层次结构。图1.3显示了一个典型的高性能体系结构。一条局部总线把处理机连接到高速缓存控制器，而高速缓存控制器又连接到支持主存储器的系统总线上。高速缓存控制器集成到连接高速总线的桥中。这一总线支持连接到：高速LAN、视频和图形工作站控制器，以及包括SCSI 和FireWire的局部外设总线的接口控制器。低速设备仍然由分开的扩充总线支持，用一个接口来缓冲该扩充总线和高速总线之间的通信流量。 PCI 外部设备互连是流行的高带宽的、独立于处理机的总线，它能够作为中间层或外围设备总线。当前的标准允许在66MHz频率下使用多达64根数据线，其原始传输速率为528MB/s, 或4.224Gbps。PCI被设计成支持各种各样基于微处理机的配置，包括单处理机和多处理机的系统。因此，它提供了一组通用的功能。PCI使用同步时序以及集中式仲裁方案。 在多处理机系统中，一个或多个PCI配置可通过桥接器连接到处理机的系统总线上。系统总线只支持处理机/高速缓存单元、主存储器以及PCI桥接器。使用桥接器使得PCI独立于处理机速度，又提供快速接收和传送数据的能力。 2.1 光存储介质：高密度存储器 2.1.1 光盘 光盘技术最终可能使磁盘和磁带存储淘汰。用这种技术，磁存储器所用的读/写头被两束激光代替。一束激光通过在光盘上刻制微小的凹点，对记录表面进行写；而另一束激光用来从光敏感的记录表面读取数据。由于光束容易被偏转到光盘上所需要的位置，所以不需要存取臂。 对用户而言，光盘正成为最有吸引力的选择。它们(光盘)对环境变化不太敏感，并且它们以每兆字节比磁盘低得多的存储器价格提供更多的直接存取存储器。光盘技术仍在出现，并且还需要稳定；然而，目前有三种主要类型的光盘。它们是CD-ROM、WORM盘和磁光盘。 CD-ROM 1980年引入的，非常成功的CD，或紧密盘是设计来提高音乐的录音重放质量的光盘。为了制作一张CD，把音乐的模拟声音转换成等价的数字声音，并且存储在一张4.72英寸的光盘上。在每张光盘上可以用数字格式（用20亿数字位）记录74分钟的音乐。因为它的巨大存储容量，计算机工业的企业家们立刻认
采矿工程专业英语(部分重要文章翻译)
P1 二、复合难句： 1、Mining may well have been the second of humankind's earliest endeavors--granted that agriculture was the first. The two industries ranked together as the primary or basic industries of early civilization 如果说农业是人类最早的产业（文明）的话，那么采矿就理所当然地排在第二。这两种产业作为人类早期文明最原始或最基本的产业联系在了一起。 2、If we consider fishing and lumbering as part of agriculture and oil and gas production as part of mining , then agriculture and mining continue to supply all the basic resources used by modern civilization 如果我们把捕鱼业和伐木业作为农业的一部分，而石油和天然气产业作为采矿的一部分，那么农业和采矿业至今仍是现代文明所使用的基础资源的支柱 3、Here the term mining is used in its broadest context as encompassing the extraction of any naturally occurring mineral substances-solid , liquid , and gas-from the earth or other heavenly bodies for utilitarian purposes. 这里所说的采矿是指广义上的，因为它包括为实利目的而从地球或其他天体岩石中获取任何天然形成的固态、液态和气态矿物的开采 4、Mine：An excavation made in the earth to extract minerals 采矿：为了开采矿物而在地球上进行的一种挖掘 5、Mining: the activity , occupation , and industry concerned with the extraction of minerals 采矿业：一种与开采矿物有关的活动、职业和产业 6、Mining engineering: the practice of applying engineering principles to the development , planning , operation , closure and reclamation of mines. 采矿工程：运用工程原理生产、规划、运作和关闭（充填）以及对矿山再利用（复垦）的一种实践 7、Mineral：A naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and a characteristic chemical composition , crystal form , and physical properties. 矿物：一种天然形成的无机元素或化合物（无机物），它有着有序的内部构造、特有的化学成分、结晶形式和物理性质。 8、Rock：Any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral particles
经典英文段落翻译__英译汉15篇
1.意大利著名旅行家马可。波罗曾这样叙述他印象中的杭州：“这是世界上最美妙迷人的城市，它使人觉得自己社在天堂。”在中国，也流传着这样的话：“上有天堂，下有苏杭。”杭州的名气主要在于风景如画的西湖。西湖一年四季都美不胜收，宋代著名诗人苏东坡用“淡妆浓抹总相宜”的诗句来赞誉西湖。在杭州，您可以饱览西湖的秀色，也不妨漫步街头闹市，品尝一下杭州的名菜名点，还可购上几样名特土产。 The famous Italian traveler Marco Pole was so impressed by the beauty of Hangzhou that he described it as “the mist fascinating city in the world where one feels that one is in paradise.” In China, there has been a century-old popular saying praising the city: In Heaven there is Paradise; on Earth there are Suzhou and Hangz hou.” Hangzhou’s fame lies mainly in its picturesque West Lake. As it is beautiful all the year round, the West Lake was compared by Su Dongpo, a celebrated poet of the Song Dynasty, to a beauty “who is always charming in either light or heavy makeup.” In Hangzhou, you will not only find the lake a perfect delight to the eye but also find it a joy to stroll along the busy streets, taste famous Hangzhou dishes and buy some special local products. 2.在设备制造期间，雇主的代表有权对根据合同提供的全部工程设备的材料和工艺进行检查、研究和检验，同时检查其制造进度。这一切应在工作时间内于承包商的工厂里进行。如果工程设备正在其它第三方工厂制造，承包商应为卖方代表获得他能在该工厂进行此类检查、研究和检验的许可。此类检查、研究或检验不应解除承包商在合同中的任何义务。 The Employer’s representative shall be entitled during manufacture to inspect, examine and test the materials and workmanship and check the progress of manufacture of all Plants to be supplied under the Contract. This shall take place on the Contractor’s promises during working hours. If the plant is being manufactured on other premises, the Contractor shall obtain permission for the Employer’s representative to carry out such inspection, examination and testing on those premises. 3. 雇主或项目经理提交给承包商的雇主的图纸，技术规格以及其它资料仍应为雇主的财产。除非是为了合同的需要，未经雇主同意，承包商不得使用、复制这些材料或将之传递给第三方。 承包商应对承包商的图纸中的任何错误或遗漏负责，除非他们可归因与雇主或项目经理提供的不正确的雇主图纸或其它书面资料。项目经理对承包商的图纸的批准不应解除本款规定的承包商的任何责任。 The Employe r’s drawings, specification and other information submitted by the Employer or the Project Manager to the Contractor shall remain the property of the Employer. They shall not, without the consent of the Employer, be used, copied or communicated to a third party by the Contractor unless necessary for the purposes of the Contract. The Contractor shall be responsible for any errors or omissions in the Contractor’s Drawings unless they are due to incorrect Employer’s Drawings or other written information supplied by the Employer or the Project Manager. Approval by the Project Manager of the Contractor’s drawings shall not relieve the Contractor from any responsibility under this Sub-Clause.
专业英语课文翻译
School of chemical engineering and pharmaceutical test tubes 试管test tube holder试管夹test tube brush 试管刷test tube rack试管架 beaker烧杯stirring搅拌棒thermometer温度计boiling flask长颈烧瓶Florence flask平底烧瓶 flask,round bottom,two-neck boiling flask,three-neck conical flask锥形瓶wide-mouth bottle广口瓶graduated cylinder量筒gas measuring tube气体检测管volumetric flask容量瓶transfer pipette移液管Geiser burette(stopcock)酸式滴定管funnel漏斗Mohr burette(with pinchcock)碱式滴定管 watch glass表面皿evaporating dish蒸发皿ground joint磨口连接Petri dish有盖培养皿 desiccators干燥皿 long-stem funnel长颈漏斗filter funnel过滤漏斗 Büchner funnel瓷漏斗separatory funnel分液漏斗 Hirsh funnel赫尔什漏斗filter flask 吸滤瓶Thiele melting point tube蒂勒熔点管 plastic squeez e bottle塑料洗瓶 medicine dropper药用滴管rubber pipette bulb 吸球microspatula微型压舌板pipet吸量管mortar and pestle研体及研钵filter paper滤纸Bunsen burner煤气灯burette stand滴定管架support ring支撑环 ring stand环架distilling head蒸馏头 side-arm distillation flask侧臂蒸馏烧瓶air condenser空气冷凝器centrifuge tube离心管 fractionating column精(分)馏管 Graham condenser蛇形冷凝器 crucible坩埚crucible tongs坩埚钳beaker tong烧杯钳economy extension clamp经济扩展夹extension clamp牵引夹utility clamp铁试管夹hose clamp软管夹 burette clamp pinchcock;pinch clamp弹簧夹 screw clamp 螺丝钳 ring clamp 环形夹goggles护目镜stopcock活塞wire gauze铁丝网analytical balance分析天平 分析化学 absolute error绝对误差accuracy准确度assay化验analyte(被)分析物calibration校准constituent成分coefficient of variation变异系数confidence level置信水平detection limit检出限determination测定estimation 估算 equivalent point等当点gross error总误差impurity杂质indicator指示剂interference干扰internal standard内标 level of significance显著性水平 limit of quantitation定量限masking掩蔽matrix基体precision精确度 primary standard原始标准物purity纯度qualitative analysis定性分析 quantitative analysis定量分析random error偶然误差reagent试剂 relative error相对误差robustness耐用性sample样品relative standard deviation相对标准偏差 selectivity选择性sensitivity灵敏度specificity专属性titration滴定significant figure有效数字solubility product溶度积 1