新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版剖析

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版

第1章导言

本章要点：

1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study

语言学的定义和研究范围

2. Important distinction in Linguistic

语言学的一些重要区分

3. The definition and the design features of language

语言的定义和识别特征

4. Function of language

语言的功能

本章考点：

语言学考点：

语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：

语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能

1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)

2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围

A：micro-linguistics

Phonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.

Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.

Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.

Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.

Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguistics

Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.

Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.

Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分

A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式

Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.

Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.

B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性

Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.

Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.

C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学

These are major media of communication.

D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)

Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.

Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.

E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.

Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.

乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：

索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。

E: Traditional Grammar vs modern linguistics 传统语法与现代语言学Saussure的《Course in General Linguistics》标志着现代语言学的开端。

区别：

a: 语言学是descriptive, 传统的语法是prescriptive.

b: 现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。

c: 现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。

4. The definition of language 语言的定义

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

5.The design features of language 语言的识别特征

The design features of human language can be called design features which distinguish it from animal language system.

A：Arbitrariness任意性

There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.

B：Productivity能产性

It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.

C：Duality二重性

Two levels: At the lower or the basic level is a structure of sounds, which are

meaningless by themselves. At higher level, the sounds of language can be regrouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.

D：Displacement 移位性

Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imainged matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.

E：Cultural transmission文化传递

Language is culturally transmitted.

F：Interchangeability互换性

Refers to man can both produce or receive the massages.

6. Functions of language 语言的功能

A：main functions

(1) Descriptive function(描述): refers to convey factual information, which can be stated or denied, and even verified.

(2) Expressive function(表达): refers to emotive or attitudinal function, con vey information about user’s feelings, preferences, prejudice, and values.

(3) Social function(社会): refers to interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.

Jakobson 将语言功能划分六大类：emotive, conative(意动), referential(指向), poetic(娱乐), phatic communication(寒暄), and matalinguistic(元语言).

B：macrofunctions

(1) Ideational(概念): It is to organize the speaker’s or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world.

(2)Interpersonal(人际): It is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.

(3) Textual: It is to organize the written or spoken texts in a coherent manner, and fit the particular situation in which they are used.

注意知识点：

1.Onomatopoeic words(拟声词) can NOT show arbitrary nature of language.

(拟声词并不能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。)

2.聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。

3. 语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。

4.语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。

第2章音位学

本章要点：

1. Speech organs

发音器官

2. Distinction, classification and the criteria of description between constants and vowels

辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则

3. Phonemes and allophones

音位和音位变体

4. Phonological rule and distinctive features

音系规则和区别特征

5. Syllable structure, stress and intonation

音节结构、重音和语调

本章考点：

语音学：

语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标音法和宽式标音法。

音系学：

音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音，句子重音）；音高和音调。

本章内容索引：

1. The phonic medium of language

2. Phonetics语音学

(1)The definition of phonetics

(2)Three research fields

(3)Organs of speech

(4)Voiceless sounds

(5)Voiced sounds

(6)Orthographic representations of speech sounds ——broad and narrow transcriptions

(7)Classification of English speech sounds

A: Definition

B: Classification of English consonants

C: Classification of English vowels

3. Phonology

(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics

(2) Phone, phonme

(3) Allophone

(4) Some rules in phonology

A: Sequential rules

B: Assimilation rule

C: Deletion rule

(5) Supra-segmental features: stress, tone, intonation

A: stress

B: tone

C: intonation

1. The phonic medium of language

2. Phonetics语音学

(1)The definition of phonetics

Phonetics: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of English language. It concerns with the sound s that occur in the world’ languages.

(2)Three research fields 三大研究领域考点名词解释

A: Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学: the study of the production of speech sounds.

B: Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学: the study of physical properties (特征)of speech sounds.

C: Perceptual phonetics 感知语音学: refers to the perception of speech sounds.

(3)Organs of speech

Vocal organs: lungs, trachea(气管), throat, nose, and mouth.

(4) Voiceless sounds 清音

The sound produced without causing the vibration of the vocal cords(声带).

(5) Voiced sounds 浊音

The sound produced with causing the vibration of the vocal cords(声带).

(6) Orthographic representations of speech sounds ——broad and narrow transcriptions

语音正字表——宽式和严式标音

A: Broad transcriptions: transcription with the letter symbols only(一般用于词典和教学)

B: Narrow transcriptions: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(变音符号). (语言学家在语言研究中使用)

IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) 产生于19世纪末。

(7)Classification of English speech sounds 语音的分类

A: Definition

a: Consonants: sounds are produced by constricting the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.

b: Vowels: sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air in the oral cavity.

B: Classification of English consonants

a: in terms of the manners of articulation(发音方式):

Stops(爆破音): pb td kg 6

Fricatives(摩擦音): /f/ /v/ /θ/ /e/ /s/ /z/ /?/ /?/ h/ /r/ 8

Affricatives(塞擦音): /t?/ /d?/

Liquids(清音): /l/ /r/

Nasals(鼻音): /m,n,η/

Glides(滑音): /w j/

b: in terms of place of articulation(发音部位)

bilabials(双唇音): /p b m w/

labiodentals(唇齿音): /f v/

dentals(齿音): /e//θ/

alveolars(齿龈音): /t d n l r s/ 6

palatals(腭音): /j ?? t? d / 5

velars(软腭音): /k gη/

glottal(喉音): /h/

C: Classification of English vowels

a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,

b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open.

c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded

d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short

3. Phonology

(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics

Similarity: Both concerned with the speech sounds.

Differences: Approach and Focus.

Phonetics: general nature, it is interested in all human languages.

Phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and how sounds convey

meanings.

(2) Phone, Phoneme 考点

Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study, a minimal sound segment that human

speech can produce. But does not necessarily distinguish meaning.

Phoneme: It is a basic unit of phonological study. It is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.

(3)Allophone: The different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic

environment are called allophones.（同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现

方式被称为音位的音位变体）

（1）complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.(当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么他们被称作处于互补分布)

（2）Free variation: 如果两个音素出现在同一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音。那么这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。

（3）Phonemic contrast: 语音相似的音如果是区别性音位，那么可以说他们形成了一个音位对立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体minimal pairs。

音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如mate和late，每一个单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。

最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。

相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音、都是唇音，但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。

(4) Some rules in phonology 音位学的一些规则

A: the sequential rules

There are rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, and these rules are called sequential rules. 某一特定语言的语言模式是受规则支配的，这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以L 开头，那后面接的必须是元音。

B: the assimilation rule 同化规则

同化指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化，齿化，鄂化。同化规则通过“拷贝”序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，从而使两个音相似。相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化，作为语言的规则。例如：[I:] 在bean green team单词中，[I:]会被鼻音化。

C: deletion rule 省略规则

省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，虽然这个音在正字法上是仍有体现。例如：g 在单词sign，design中是不发音的，但在完整的signature 和designation中的g是发音的。

(5). supra-segmental features: stress, tone and intonation 超切分特征：重音，音调，语调

A: 单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。'digest n. 摘要di'gest v. 消化

Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.

B: 音调是由声带vocal cord的不同震动引起的。

C: 语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。

注意点：

1.Speech is more basic than writing 的原因：

A: linguistic evolution’ view, speech is prior to writing.

B: in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing (amount of information conveyed)

C: native speakers acquire their mother tongue by speech.

D: spoken language reveal more true features of human speech.

2.phone 与phoneme 区别

A phone is phonetic unit or segment, the speech sound we hear and produce during

linguistic communication are all phones.

A phoneme is not a particular sound, which is represented or realized by a certain

phone in a certain phonetic context.

Allophones: clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme l.

3.cardinal vowels 基本元音英国音位学家Daniel Jones

Chapter 5 Semantics

1. Definition

1.命名论The naming theory

Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. (缺点：仅限于名词)

2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3.语境论Conceptualism

It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.

4.行为主义论Behaviorism

It refers to the attempted to defin e the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.

2. Lexical meaning:

Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

3. Main sense relations

1.同义词Synonymy

It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.

(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）

British America

Autum fall

Flat apartment

(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）

Old man daddy father male parent

(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning （情感）

Collaborator VS Accomplice

(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）

Accuse VS Charge （accuse…of; charge…with）

Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs

(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）

Amaze VS Astound

2. 多义词Polysemy

It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.

Ball: 1, a round object used in game. 2. a large formal social event at which people dance.

3.同音(形)异义Homonymy

It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

1. Homophones同音异义

It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.

2. Homographs同形异义

It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.

3. Complete homonyms 同形同音

It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. e.g. tear v./tear n.

6.上下义关系Hyponymy

It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

Superordinate: animal

Subordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,

7.反义词Antonymy

It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on dif ferent dimension.

a)gradable:等级反义词old-young

b)complementary：互补反义词male-female

c)relational: 关系father-son buy-sell

4. Sentence sense relations:

1. X is synonymous with Y （同义）

Eg. He is a bachelor all his life.

He never married all his life.

2.X is inconsistent with Y （不一致）

Eg. John is married

John is a bachelor.

3.X entails Y （附属）

Eg. He has been to France.

He has been to Europe.

4.X presuppose Y （Y是X的先决条件）

Eg. John’s bike needs reparing.

John has a bike.

5.X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）

Eg. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

6.X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）

Eg. The table has bad intensions.

5. Analysis of meaning

1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义

It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

Eg. Man= Adult+Male+Animate+Human

2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)

It’s a new approach for sentential mean ing analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. (通过

对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)

3.先设前提Presupposition

It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.

4.蕴涵Entailment

Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.

A: Mark married a blonde heiress.

B: Mark married a blonde.

第6章pragmatics

本章要点：

1. speech act theory

言语行为的理论

2. cooperative principle and its maxins

合作原则及其准则

3. Gricean theory of conventional implicature

格莱斯会话含义理论

本章考点：

语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：

1．Pragmatics

Definition

Pragmatics & semantics

Context

Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning

2．Speech act theory

Austin’s model of speech acts

Searl’s classification of speech acts

Indirect speech acts

3．Principle of conversion

Cooperative principle and its maxins

Violation of the maxins

4．Conversational implicature

Definition

Characteristics of conversational implicative

Calculability

Cancellability

Non-detachability

Non-conventionality

5．Cross-cultural pragmatics failure

1．Pragmatics

Definition

It is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

Pragmatics & semantics

If the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.

Context

A: Definition:

It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.

B: Significance:

It determines the speaker’s use of language and the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.

Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义

Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.

Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based on sentence meaning.

2．Speech act theory

Austin’s model of speech acts

A: An locutionary act(言内行为)：an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

B: An illocutionary act(言外行为)：an act of expressing the speaker’s intention.

C: An perlocutionary act(言后行为)：an act of performed by or resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought about by the utterance;

Searl’s(瑟尔) classification of speech acts

A: Representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying something what the speaker believes to be true. 陈述，相信，发誓Eg: I swear I have never seen the man before.

B: directives(指令类)：Trying to get the hearer to do something.

advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。

Eg：open the door!

C: Commissives(承诺类)：committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.

commit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten。

Eg：I promise to come!

D: Expressives(表达类)：expressing the feeling or attitude towards an existing state. apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcome Eg：I am sorry for the mess I have made.

E: Declarations(宣告类)：bring about immediate change by saying something.

appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign

Eg: I fire you.

Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)

Two speech acts:

The primary: speaker’s goal of communication

The second: means by which he achieves his goal.

3．Principle of conversion

Cooperative principle and its maxins(Paul Grice)

A: the maxim of quantity量的准则: (you are what you say)

Make your contribution informative as required, not more informative than required.

B: the maxim of quality质的准则: Tautologies(意思重复)

Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence.

C: the maxim of relation关系准则:

Be relevant.

D: the maxim of manner方式准则:

Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.

Violation of the maxims

通过实例分析违反准则。

4．Conversational implicature

Definition

Characteristics of conversational implicative

●Cancellability/defeasibility

This means that an implicature can be cancelled. The feature allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.

A: Let's have a drink.

B: It's not one o'clock yet. (implying we can drink after one o'clock)

A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you couldn't drink before. (the implicature disappears)

●Non-detachability

This means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.

For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying "Bob is a genius" to convey the opposite meaning "Bob is terribly foolish, he can choose any of the following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:

a) Bob is a mental prodigy.

b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.

c) Bob is an enormous intellect.