语言学期末总结
第一章
1.语言的基本特征 Design features of language (p4-7)
Arbitrariness, Duality, Creativity and Displacement
2.Arbitrariness 的三层含义 What’s the three different levels of Arbitrariness
①the relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning is arbitrary
②language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level, in other words, syntax is
less arbitrary
than words
③conventionality is the other side of the coin of arbitrariness.
3.Duality 和Displacement的定义 (p5)
By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizations.
4.语言的功能 Functions of language（p9）
Informative, function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 5. Performative的定义（p11）
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, the kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.
6. Main branches of linguistics (p15)
Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.
7. Psycholinguistics (p18)
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.
In the psycholinguistic study of grammar, the psycholinguistic constraints on
the form of grammar are examined. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language; and a profound aspect—the relationship between language and cognition.
8. Important Distinctions in Linguistics 中各分点的定义 (p19)
9. Langue& Parole (p21)
10. Saussure 现代语言学的开山鼻祖
11. Chomsky 美国语言学家，转换-生成语法的创始人
第二章
12.语音学研究的三个领域 the three main areas of the study of sounds( Phonetics)
（p24）
①Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.
②Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.
③Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the percecption of speech
sounds.
13.元音与辅音的区别 The distinction between consonants and vowels （p29）
Consonants are produced” by a closure in the vocal tract,, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”.
By contrast, a vowel is produced without such”stricture”so that”air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
14.发音方式与发音位置 The manner and the place of articulation （p30\31 已
划出）
The manner of articulation: there are 8t manners of articulation. Stop( or Plosive),
Nasal, Fricative, Approximant, Lateral, Trill, Tap and
Flap,
Affricate.
The place of articulation: there are 11 places of articulation. Bilabial, Labiodental, Dental,
Alveolar, Postalveolar, Retroflex, Palatal, Velar, Uvular,
Pharyngeal, Glottal
15.记忆所有元音、基础元音（CARDINAL VOWELS）（p33\36 坐标法）
16.记忆辅音（辅音表）（p35 Table ）
17.了解RP, GA （p36 Table ……）
18.元音的四个指标 The four basic requirements of the description of English
vowels （p37 已划出）
①the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low).
②the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back).
③the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short).
④lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).
19.辅音的指标
20. Coarticulation 的两个分类（p38 已划出）
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lanmb, it is known as Anticipatory Coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative Coarticulation, as is the case of map.
21.超音段的四个主要特征 The four principal suprasegmentals（p49 已划出）
Syllable Structure, Stress, Intonation, Tone.
22.一个音节由哪两个部分构成（p50 已划出）
We can divide a syllable into two parts, the Rhyme ( or Rime) and the Onset.
23.英语前面最多允许多少个辅音在结尾最多允许……
第三章
24.词的三层含义 Three senses of“ word”（p55 的三个小标题）
①A physical definable unit
②Word both as a general term and as a specific term
③A grammatical unit
25. How to ideatify word （p57 三个标准，三个小标准）
Stability, Relative Uninterruptibility, A minimum free form
26.词的分类 Classification of words (p58)
①Variable and invariable words
②Grammatical words and lexical words
③Closed-class words and open-class words
④Word class
27. Variable/ invariable words 各自的概念（p58）
Variable words: variable words may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may
have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively
constant.
Invariable words: invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom,
through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.
28. Grammatical words 和 lexical words 各自的概念 (p58)
Grammatical words: words which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause,
clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as,
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns.
Lexical words: words which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such
as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words. Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link
together different content parts, so lexical words are also known as CONTENT WORDS and
grammatical ones as FUNCTION WORDS.
29. Morpheme 的概念 (p61)
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
30.最小的发音单位 phoneme（了解）
31. Types of Morphemes (p62)
Morphemes can be sub-classified into different types, depending on what criteria you attempt to follow.
①Free morpheme and bound morpheme: if the word may occur alone
②Root, affix and stem: poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided
into
roots and affixes
③Inflectional affix and derivational affix: concerned with affixes only
32. Root, affix, stem各自的概念 (p62\63)
Root: root is the base form of a word that cannot ba further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all
the affixes are removed.
Affix: affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added
to another morpheme (the root or stem), so it is naturally bound.
Stem: stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix
can be added. It may be the same as a root, whereas the latter indicates that a stem
may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.
33.理解前、中、后缀
34.区别inflectional affix 和derivational affix (p63\64 三点)
These two types of affix have three differences:
First, inflectional affixed are generally less productive that dericational affixes: they are
often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem.
Therefore,
they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational
affixes are very productive in making new words.
Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,
whereas derivational affixes might or might not. Derivational affixes often change
the lexical meaning.
35.弄清什么是endocentric compound (p66)
36. Sememe, morpheme, phoneme各自的定义（p68）
Sememe: SEMEME is the smallest component of meaning.
Morpheme: MORPHEME is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further
smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether if
is lexical or grammatical.
Phoneme: PHONEME is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.
37.七种造词方式 Lexical Change Proper（p73 可能有单词与其构成法的连线，
搞清相关概念）
Invention, Blending, Abbreviation, Acronym, Back- formation, Analogical creation,
Borrowing.
第四章
38.句法的关系 Sentactic relations (p84 三种)
Positional relation: POSITIONAL RELATION, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential
arrangement of words in a language.
Relation of substitutability: RELATION OF SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to classes or sets of
words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the
same structure.
Relation of Co- occurrence: By the relation of CO- OCCURRENCE one means that words of
different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word
of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a
sentence.
39.句法分析中word level 的几个符号（p88 学会运用，记住表中的句子即可）
Word- level Phrasal N = noun NP = noun phrase
A = adjective AP = adjective phrase
V = verb VP = verb phrase
P = preposition PP = preposition phrase Det = determiner S = sentence or clause Adv = adverb
Conj = conjunction
S
NP VP
Det N V NP
Det N
The boy ate the apple
The boy ate the apple
40. Coordination 和Subordination的概念（p90）
Coordination: COORDINATION is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same
type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or. This
phenomenon isknown as coordination.
Subordination: SUBORDINATION refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so
that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the
other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate
constituents are words which modify the Head, as shown in the underlined
parts of the constructions( page 91). Consequently, they can be called
modifiers.
41. Number (p96)
NUMBER is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. in English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men. In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
42.中英的Gender区别 (p97 你\妳他\她)
43. Case的中英对比Agreement的中英对比（p97\98）
44.七大句子结构类型 seven sentence types according to grammatical functions of
the
constituents involved in a sentence（p101）
(a)Type SVC Mary is kind. (a nurse)
(b)Type SVA Mary is here. (in the house)
(c)Type SV The child is laughing.
(d)Type SVO Somebody caught the ball.
(e)Type SVOC We have proved him wrong. (a
fool)
(f)Type SVOA I put the plate on the table.
(g)Type SVOO She gives me expensive presents.
45.从句的类型（p102）
The three basic types of subordinate clause are complement, adjunct (or adverbial) and relative clauses.
46. Cohesion的六种手段 Six cohesive devices（p103）
Conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution
第五章
47.Leech提出的七种意义 7 types of meaning in Leech’s Semantics(p105)
48.用自己的话解释Referential Theory (p107)
49. Sense Relations (p109)
Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.
Antonymy: antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.
Hyponymy: the term HYPONYMY is of recent creation, which has not found its way to some
small dictionaries yet. But the notion of meaning inclusiveness is not new. In
other words, hyponymy is amatter of class membership. The upper term in this
sense relation is called SUPERORDINATE, and the lower terms, the members,
HYPONYMYS.
50.重点是antonymy (p110)
There are three main sub- types of antonymy:
Gradable antonymy: this is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly
adjectives.
And they have three characteristics. First, they are GRADABLE.
That is,
the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not
necessarily the assertion of the other. They may have comparative and
superlative degrees. They may be expressed by separare words rather
than by adding modifiers. Second, antonymys of this kind are graded
against different norms. Third, one member of a pair, usually the term
for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.
Complementary antonymy: in contrast to the first type, the members of a pair in this type
are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a
semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the
denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the
other.
To some extent, the difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory. Firstly, in logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if both cannot be true, though they may both be false; and a preposition is the contradictory
of another if it is impossible for both to be true. In a diagram form this difference may be represented as follows:
Gradable/ contrary Complementary/ contradictory Secondly, the norm in this type is absolute. Thirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.
Converse antonymy: this is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not
constitute a positive- negative opposition. They show the reversal of a
relationship between two entities. It is in this sense that they are also
known as RELATIONAL OPPOSITES.
51.了解hyponymy (p113)
第八章
52. Two types of sentences: Performatives and Constatives (p 186)
Performatives: Sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false.
The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of , the doing of an action. So
they are called PERFORMATIVES. And verbs like name are called
performative verbs.
Constatives: In contrast, I pour some liquid into the tube said by a chemistry
teacher in a
demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of
what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour
any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his
words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a
false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.
52. Locutionary and Illocutionary (p188
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
英语语言学词汇汇总
现代语言学术语总结 A abbreviation缩写法 acculturation语言文化移入 acoustic phonetics声学语言学 acronym词首字母缩略词 address term称谓语 addresser发话人 addressee受话人 adjacency毗邻 Adjacency Condition毗邻条件 Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数 Affix词缀 Affixation加词缀法 Affricate塞擦音 Afroasiatic非亚语系 agreement rule一致关系规则 allophone音位变体 alveolar齿龈音 alveolus齿龈 angular gyrus角形脑回 antonymy反义现象 antonym反以词 apocope词尾音脱落 aphasia失语症 aphasic失语症患者 applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性 argument论元 articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项 aspiration送气 assimilation同化 approximation近似化 auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系 B Babbling咿呀学语 back-formation逆向构词法 back vowel后元音 Behaviorism行为主义 Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学
语言学概论 复习总结
英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪
第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初
语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释（4*6=24） 1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works. 同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。
(完整版)语言学组合与聚合总结
一、组合关系和和聚合关系的提出 组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔提出来的现代语言学结构主义的一个重要原理。 组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。例如"学习外语"，"学习"与"外语"组合，形成述宾关系。 聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。例如"学习外语"，其中"学习"可以用"研究"替换。 语言的组合关系说明了语言结构的规则，语言的聚合关系说明了替换规则。 二、语音的组合与聚合关系 语音中的每一个音素（音位），它总是处在相邻的音素之间。通过音素组合关系的研究，建立起来音位。 例如：北京话有几个与[a]发音比较接近的元音，从音质角度看，它们是不同的音，它们分别为[a]、[ɑ]、[A]、[ε]。[a]只出现在i和n 的前面，如bai 、ai、ban、an等；[ɑ]只出现在u和ng的前面，如gao、yang、ao、gang等；[A]只出现在音节的最后，如jia、hua、ba 等；。根据这些组合规律我们就可以把它们归纳成为一个音位[a]。汉语拼音方案就是按音位设计的。
聚合关系是出现在一定组合中相同位置上的各语言成分所具有的类聚会同的关系。聚合关系是在对立互补原则的基础上建立的，我们把能够出现在一个音节开头的那个辅音归成一类，那就是声母。声母之间是聚合关系。如有的辅音只出现在i和ü前面，像j、q、x，我们把这三个辅音看作是一个小的类聚，它们在发音上有共同的特点称为舌面音。其他如舌尖前音、舌尖中音、舌尖后音、双唇音、舌根音等类聚。现代汉语中的辅音大部分有双向的聚合。我们可以看下面的z c s 、zh ch sh、j q x。 从可以看到，横向的三个辅音也分别是一种聚合，第一行是舌尖前音的聚合，第二行是舌尖后音的聚合，第三行是舌面音的聚合；同样纵向的三个音也是一种聚合，第一列的三个音是不送气塞擦音的聚合，第二列是送气塞擦音的聚合，第三列是擦音的聚合。 三、词（语素）的组合关系和聚合关系 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体，或者说是最小的语言单位。在语言中，语素不可再分，因为切分语素得到的是音素。语素和语素可组合成词语。 语素的组合和聚合不像语音那样有严整的规律。语素的组合有许多制约的因素。语素组合比较有规律的是一些虚语素，即词缀。如现代汉语中的“阿”总是和表人的语素组合在一起，构成“阿公、阿婆阿Q、阿姨”等。与此类似的还有，例如：子——矮子、才子、担子、胆子、桌子。
简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
语言学第七章知识点总结
语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.360docs.net/doc/8f4098360.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns
语言学心得
语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日
语言学概论-总结
◎Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese cows sound the same, but not in English and Chinese! ◎The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign 语言符号and its meaning, however, is also conventional 符合习俗的. 2) Productivity / Creativity ◎----Peculiar to 是…特有的human languages ，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. ◎Language is resourceful 资源丰富的because of its duality 二元性and its recursiveness [ri'k?:sivnis]递归性. We can use it to create new meanings. ◎Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly 立即地understood by people who have never come across 讲得清楚明白that usage before. ◎The recursive nature 递归性of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance: ①He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ... ②This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt 麦芽that lay in the house that Jack built. 3) Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) 二层性是指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。（Lyons, 1981)
语言学重点概念总结
Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.
语言学期末复习资料整理版
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
语言学总结
In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.360docs.net/doc/8f4098360.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.360docs.net/doc/8f4098360.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak
语言学概论
语言学概论 Company number：【0089WT-8898YT-W8CCB-BUUT-202108】
《语言学概论》讲义提纲 导言 一、语言学的性质、特点 （一）语言学的性质 １、性质：语言学是研究语言的科学。 ２、对象：语言学的研究对象是语言。 ３、任务：综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律。 语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。 （二）语言学的特点 １、研究的领域广 ２、与多种学科交叉 举例 二、语言学的发展过程（简介）有关语言学史方面的内容可参看刘润清《西方语言学流派》、赵世开着《国外语言学概述——流派和代表人物》、冯志伟《现代语言学流派》、H·A·堪德拉绍夫《语言学说史》、岑麒祥《语言学史概要》等。 （一）传统语文学：（传统）语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。 （１）中国传统语文学（小学） ①训诂学（主要是解释词义） 《尔雅》约成书于公元前3世纪。是我国最早的解释词义的专着。《尔雅》
今本共19篇。开头3篇是汇集当时古书中的同义词，用当时较通用的一个词（字）去解释。其后的16篇是按词义分类，分别解释。类似于今天的类义词典。《尔雅》不仅成为后来古代汉语词汇学、训诂学的重要着作，也是辞典学、词义分类学和类书的开山之作。 扬雄《方言》（西汉末）全名为《輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言》，是我国第一部比较方言词汇的重要着作，今存13卷。《方言》汇集了古今各地同义的词语，大部分注明通行范围，对研究汉代方言分布情况很有价值。《方言》以各地的活方言作为记录的对象，不受文献记载和文字形义的限制，并注意综合时间和地域的不同去研究方言，这在研究方法上为后人树立了优良传统。 ②文字学（分析汉字结构及意义） 许慎《说文解字》（东汉）是我国第一部最完备的字书。原书本文14卷，叙目1卷，每卷分上、下两部分，共30卷。收字9，353个，重文1，163字。解说部分共133，441字。书中所收文字以小篆为主，而把古文、籀文等异体列为重文。字的注释，一般先讲字义，再讲形体构造及读音。依据当时已通行的“六书”为理论基础去解释每个字。《说文解字》第一次把汉字（小篆）按形体构造分出偏旁，首次把汉字按部件拆开；首创部首编排法，是汉字检索的一大发明。《说文解字》是汉字学的经典着作，同时也是一部字典、辞典、字源、语源、语法规范的综合性的着作，对后来的文字研究有奠基意义。 ③音韵学（研究汉字读音及其发展） 三国魏朝李登撰写的《声类》是我国见于记载的最早的韵书，据说此书约唐代中叶后佚失。全书共10卷，收字11，520。《声类》按宫、商、角、徵、羽五声分类，注音用反切法，并附有简略释义。
语言学重点总结
Chapter 6 Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach. The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning. The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning. The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language. Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition Language acquisition: ①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three-word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations