高分子材料工程专业英语翻译

Unit 1 What are polymers?

What are polymers? For one thing, they are complex and giant molecules and are different from low molecular weight compounds like, say, common salt.

什么是高聚物？首先，他们是合成物和大分子，而且不同于低分子化合物，譬如说普通的盐。

To contrast the difference, the molecular weight of common salt is only 58.5, while that of a polymer can be as high as several hundred thousand, even more than thousand thousands.

与低分子化合物不同的是，普通盐的分子量仅仅是58.5，而高聚物的分子量高于105，甚至大于106。

These big molecules or ‘macro-molecules’ are made up of much sma ller molecules, can be of one or more chemical compounds.

这些大分子或“高分子”由许多小分子组成。小分子相互结合形成大分子，大分子能够是一种或多种化合物。

To illustrate, imagine that a set of rings has the same size and is made of the same material. When these things are interlinked, the chain formed can be considered as representing a polymer from molecules of the same compound.

举例说明，想象一组大小相同并由相同的材料制成的环。当这些环相互连接起来，可以把形成的链看成是具有同种化合物组成的高聚物。

Alternatively, individual rings could be of different sizes and materials, and interlinked to represent a polymer from molecules of different compounds.

另一方面，环可以大小不同、材料不同, 相连接后形成具有不同化合物组成的聚合物。

This interlinking of many units has given the polymer its name, poly meaning ‘many’ and mer meaning ‘part’ (in Greek).

聚合物的名称来自于许多单元相连接，poly意味着“多、聚、重复”，mer意味着“链节、基体”（希腊语中）。

As an example, a gaseous compound called butadiene, with a molecular weight of 54, combines nearly 4000 times and gives a polymer known as polybutadiene (a synthetic rubber) with about 200 000molecular weight.

例如：气态化合物丁二烯的分子量为54，连接4000次可得到分子量大约为200000的聚丁二烯（合成橡胶）高聚物。

The low molecular weight compounds from which the polymers form are known as monomers. The picture is simply as follows:

形成高聚物的低分子化合物称为单体。下面简单地描述一下形成过程：

butadiene + butadiene + ??? + butadiene--→polybutadiene(4 000 time)

丁二烯＋丁二烯＋…＋丁二烯——→聚丁二烯（4000次）

One can thus see how a substance (monomer) with as small a molecule weight as 54 grow to become a giant molecule (polymer) of (54×4 000≈)200 000 molecular weight.

能够知道分子量仅为54的小分子物质（单体）如何逐渐形成分子量为200000的大分子（高聚物）。

It is essentially the “giantness” of the size of the polymer molecule that makes its behavior (different from that of a commonly known chemical compound such as benzene.)

实质上正是由于聚合物的巨大分子尺寸才使其性能不同于像苯这样的一般化合物（的性能）

Solid benzene, for instance, melts to become liquid benzene at 5.5℃and , on further heating, boils into gaseous benzene.

例如固态苯在5.5℃熔融成液态苯，进一步加热，煮沸成气态苯。

As against this well-defined behavior of a simple chemical compound, a polymer like polyethylene does not melt sharply at one particular temperature into clean liquid. 与这类简单化合物明确的行为相比，像聚乙烯这样的聚合物不能在某一特定的温度快速地熔融成纯净的液体。

Instead, it becomes increasingly softer and, ultimately, turns into a very viscous, tacky molten mass. Further heating of this hot, viscous, molten polymer does convert it into various gases but it is no longer polyethylene. (Fig. 1.1) .

而聚合物变得越来越软，最终变成十分粘稠的聚合物熔融体。将这种热而粘稠的聚合物熔融体进一步加热，它会转变成不同气体，但它不再是聚乙烯（如图1.1）Another striking difference with respect to the behavior of a polymer and that of a low molecular weight compound concerns the dissolution process.

聚合物行为和低分子量化合物另一不同的行为为溶解过程。

Let us take, for example, sodium chloride and add it slowly to fixed quantity of water. The salt, which represents a low molecular weight compound, dissolves in water up to a point (called saturation point) but, thereafter, any further quantity added does not go into solution but settles at the bottom and just remains there as solid.

例如，将氯化钠慢慢地添加到定量的水中。盐作为一种低分子量化合物，在水中溶解直到某一点（叫饱和点），但进一步添加, 盐不进入溶液中却沉到底部而保持原有的固体状态

The viscosity of the saturated salt solution is not very much different from that of water. But if we take a polymer instead, say, polyvinyl alcohol, and add it to a fixed quantity of water, the polymer does not go into solution immediately.

饱和盐溶液的粘度与水的粘度接近.但是，如果我们用聚合物，如聚乙烯醇添加到定量水中，聚合物不是马上进入到溶液中。

The globules of polyvinyl alcohol first absorb water, swell and get distorted in shape and after a long time go into solution.

聚乙烯醇颗粒首先吸水溶胀，发生变形，经过很长时间后，（聚乙烯醇分子）进入到溶液中。

Also, we can add a very large quantity of the polymer to the same quantity of water without the saturation point ever being reached.

同样地，我们可以将大量的聚合物加入到同样量的水中，不存在饱和点。

As more and more quantity of polymer is added to water, the time taken for the dissolution of the polymer obviously increases and the mix ultimately assumes a soft, dough-like consistency.

将越来越多的聚合物加入水中，认为聚合物溶解的时间明显地增加，最终呈现柔软像面团一样粘稠的混合物。

Another peculiarity is that, in water, polyvinyl alcohol never retains its original powdery nature [as the excess sodium chloride does] [in a saturated salt solution].

另一个特点是，在水中聚乙烯醇不会像过量的氯化钠在饱和盐溶液中那样能保持其初始的粉末状态。

In conclusion, we can say that (1) the long time taken by polyvinyl alcohol for dissolution, (2) the absence of a saturation point, and (3) the increase in the viscosity are all characteristics of a typical polymer being dissolved in a solvent and these characteristics are attributed mainly to the large molecular size of the polymer.

总之，我们可以讲（1）聚乙烯醇的溶解需要很长时间，（2）不存在饱和点，（3）粘度的增加是聚合物溶于溶液中的典型特性，这些特性主要归因于聚合物大分子的尺寸。

The behavior of a low molecular weight compound and that of a polymer on dissolution are illustrated in Fig.1.2.

Many olefinic and vinyl unsaturated compounds are able to form chain-like macromolecules through elimination of the double bond, a phenomenon first recognized by Staudinger. Diolefins polymerize in the same manner, however, only one of the two double bonds is eliminated.

Staudinger首先发现许多烯烃和不饱和烯烃通过打开双键可以形成链式大分子。二烯烃以同样的方式聚合，但仅消除两个双键中的一个。

Such reactions occur through the initial addition of a monomer molecule to an initiator radical or an initiator ion, by which the active state is transferred from the initiator to the added monomer.

这类反应是通过单体分子首先加成到引发剂自由基或引发剂离子上而进行的，靠这些反应活性中心由引发剂转移到被加成的单体上。

In the same way by means of a chain reaction, one monomer molecule after the other is added (2000~20000 monomers per second) until the active state is terminated through a different type of reaction.

单体分子通过链式反应以同样的方式一个接一个地加上（每秒2000～20000个单体）直到活性中心通过不同的反应方式终止。

The polymerization is a chain reaction in two ways: because of the reaction kinetic and because as a reaction product one obtains a chain molecule. The length of the chain molecule is proportional to the kinetic chain length.

聚合反应成为链式反应的两种原因：反应动力学和作为链式反应产物分子。链分子的长度与动力学链长成正比。

One can summarize the process as follow (R. is equal to the initiator radical):

链式反应可以概括为以下过程（R·相当与引发剂自由基）：略

One thus obtains polyvinylchloride from vinylchloride, or polystyrene from styrene, or polyethylene from ethylene, etc.

因而通过上述过程由氯乙烯得到聚氯乙烯，或由苯乙烯获得聚苯乙烯，或乙烯获得聚乙烯，等等。

The length of the chain molecules, measured by means of the degree of polymerization, can be varied over a large range through selection of suitable reaction conditions.

分子链长通过聚合度测量，可以通过选择适宜的反应条件大为改变

Usually, with commercially prepared and utilized polymers, the degree of polymerization lies in the range of 1000 to 5000, but in many cases it can be below 500 and over 10000.

商业制备和使用的聚合物，聚合度通常在1000～5000范围内，但在许多情况下可低于500或高于10000。

This should not be interpreted to mean that all molecules of a certain polymeric material consist of 500, or 1000, or 5000 monomer units. In almost all cases, the polymeric material consists of a mixture of polymer molecules of different degrees of polymerization.

这不应该把聚合物材料所有的分子理解为由500，或1000，或5000个单体单元组成。在几乎所有的情况下，聚合物材料由不同聚合度的聚合物分子的混合物组成。

Polymerization, a chain reaction, occurs according to the same mechanism as the well-known chlorine-hydrogen reaction and the decomposition of phosegene.

链式聚合反应的机理与众所周知的氯（气）-氢（气）反应和光气的分解机理相同。

The initiation reaction, which is the activation process of the double bond, can be brought about by heating, irradiation, ultrasonics, or initiators. The initiation of the chain reaction can be observed most clearly with radical or ionic initiators.

通过双键活化的引发剂反应，可以通过热、辐射、超声波或引发剂产生。可以很清楚地进行研究用自由基型或离子型引发剂引发的链式反应。

These are energy-rich compounds which can add suitable unsaturated compounds (monomers) and maintain the activated radical or ionic state so that further monomer molecules can be added in the same manner.

这些是高能态的化合物，它们能够加成不饱和化合物（单体）并保持自由基或离子活性中心以致单体可以以同样的方式进一步加成。

For the individual steps of the growth reaction one needs only a relatively small activation energy and therefore through a single activation step (the actual initiation reaction) a large number of olefin molecules are converted, as is implied by the term “chain reaction”.

对于增长反应的各个步骤，每一步仅需要相当少的活化能，因此通过一步简单的活化反应（即引发反应）即可将许多烯类单体分子转化成聚合物，这正如连锁反应这个术语的内涵那样。

Because very small amounts of the initiator bring about the formation of a large amount of polymeric material (1:1000 to 1:1000), it is possible to regard polymerization from a superficial point of view as a catalytic reaction.

因为少量的引发剂引发形成大量的聚合物原料（1：1000～1：10000），从表面上看聚合反应被看成是催化反应。

For this reason, the initiators used in polymerization reactions are often designated as polymerization catalysts, even though, in the strictest sense, they are not true catalysts because the polymerization initiator enters into the reaction as a real partner and can be found chemically bound in the reaction product ,i.e. ,the polymer.

由于这个原因，通常把聚合反应的引发剂看作是聚合反应的引发剂。但因为聚合反应的催化剂进入到反应内部而成为一部分，同时可以在反应产物，既聚合物的末端发现催化剂，所以严格地讲它们不是真正意义上的催化剂，

In addition to the ionic and radical initiators there are now metal complex initiators (which can be obtained, for example, by the reaction of titanium tetrachloride or titanium trichloride with aluminum alkyls), which play an important role in polymerization reactions (Ziegler catalysts) ,The mechanism of their catalytic action is not yet completely clear.

除离子引发剂和自由基引发剂外，还有金属络合物引发剂（可以通过四氯化钛或三氯化钛与烷基铝的反应得到）。它们在聚合反应中起到了重要作用（齐格纳引

Many different chemical reactions may be used to synthesize polymeric materials by step-growth polymerization. These include esterification, amidation, the formation of urethanes, aromatic substitution, etc.

通过逐步聚合可用许多不同的化学反应来合成聚合材料。这些反应包括酯化、酰胺化、氨基甲酸酯、芳香族取代物的形成等。

Polymerization proceeds by the reactions between two different functional groups, e.g., hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, or isocyanate and hydroxyl groups.

通过在两种不同的官能团，如，羟基和羧基，或异氰酸酯和羟基之间可发生聚合反应。

All step-growth polymerization fall into two groups depending on the type of monomer(s) employed. The first involves two different polyfunctional monomers in which each monomer possesses only one type of functional group.

所有的逐步聚合反应根据所使用单体的类型可分为两类。第一类涉及两种不同的官能团单体，每一种单体仅具有一种官能团。

A polyfunctional monomer is one with two or more functional groups per molecule. The second involves a single monomer containing both types of functional groups. 一种多官能团单体每个分子有两个或多个官能团。第二类涉及含有两类官能团的单个单体。

The synthesis of polyamides illustrates both groups of polymerization reactions. Thus, polyamides can be obtained from the reaction of diamines with diacids or from the reaction of amino acids with themselves.

聚酰胺的合成说明了两类聚合反应。因此聚酰胺可以由二元胺和二元酸的反应或氨基酸之间的反应得到。

The two groups of reactions can be represented in a general manner by the equations as follows

两种官能团之间的反应一般来说可以通过下列反应式表示

Reaction (3.1) illustrates the former, while (3.2) is of the latter type.

反应（3.1）说明前一种形式，而反应（3.2）具有后一种形式。

Polyesterification, whether between diol and dibasic acid or intermolecularly between hydroxy acid molecules, is an example of a step-growth polymerization process. 聚酯化反应是逐步聚合反应过程的一个例子。反应可能在二元酸和二元醇之间或羟基酸分子间进行。

The esterification reaction occurs anywhere in the monomer matrix where two monomer molecules collide, and once the ester has formed, it, too, can react further by virtue of its still-reactive hydroxyl or carboxyl groups.

酯化反应出现在单体本体中两个单体分子相碰撞的位置，且酯一旦形成，依靠酯上仍有活性的羟基或羧基还可以进一步进行反应。

The net effect of this is that monomer molecules are consumed rapidly without any large increase in molecular weight.

酯化的结果是单体分子很快地被消耗掉，而分子量却没有多少增加。

Fig. 3.1 illustrates this phenomenon. Assume, for example, that each square in Fig. 3.1a represents a molecule of hydroxy acid. After the initial dimmer molecules from (b), half the monomer molecules have been consumed and the average degree of polymerization (DP) of polymeric species is 2.

图3.1说明了这个现象。假定图3.1中的每一个方格代表一个羟基酸分子。产生二聚体分子后（b ），一半的单体分子消耗了，这时平均聚合度（DP ）是2。 As trimer and more dimer molecules form (c), more than 80% of the monomer molecules have reacted, but DP is still 2.5. When all the monomer molecules have reacted (d), DP is 4.

（c ）中形成三聚体和更多的二聚体，超过80%的单体分子已参加反应，但DP 仅仅还是2.5。（d ）中所有的单体反应完，DP 是4。

But each polymer molecule that forms still has reactive end groups; hence the polymerization reaction will continue in a stepwise fashion, with each esterification step being identical in rate and mechanism to the initial esterification of monomers.

但形成的每一种聚合物分子还有反应活性的端基；因此，聚合反应将以逐步的方式继续进行，其每一步酯化反应的反应速率和反应机理均与初始单体的酯化作用相同。

Thus, molecular weight increases slowly even at high levels of monomer conversion, and it will continue to increase until the viscosity build-up makes it mechanically too difficult to remove water of esterification or for reactive end groups to find each other.

这样，分子量在高单体转化率下缓慢增加，继续增加直到粘度增加到难以除去酯化反应的水或端基难以相互反应为止。

It can also be shown that in the A-A+B-B type of polymerization, an exact stoichiometric balance is necessary to achieve high molecular weights. If some monofunctional impurity is present, its reaction will limit the molecular weight by rendering a chain end inactive.

在A-A+B-B 的聚合反应中，精确的定量配比是获得高分子量所必需的。假如存在一些单官能团杂质，由于链的端基失活，其反应将限制分子量。

Similarly, high-purity monomers are necessary in the A-B type

of polycondensation and it follows that high-yield reactions are the only practical ones for polymer formation, since side reactions will upset the stoichiometric balance.

Ionic polymerization, similar to radical polymerization, also has the mechanism of a chain reaction. The kinetics of ionic polymerization are, however, considerably different from that of radical polymerization.

离子聚合反应，与自由基聚合反应相似，也是链反应机理。但离子聚合的动力学明显地不同于自由基聚合反应。

(1) The initiation reaction of ionic polymerization needs only a small activation energy. Therefore, the rate of polymerization depends only slightly on the temperature.

(1)离子聚合的引发反应仅需要很小的活化能。因此，聚合反应的速率与温度关系不大。

Ionic polymerizations occur in many cases with explosive violence even at temperature. below 50℃(for example, the anionic polymerization of styrene at –70℃in tetrahydrofuran, or the cationic polymerization of isobutylene at –100℃in liquid ethylene ).

在许多情况甚至低于50℃下离子聚合反应剧烈（例如，苯乙烯的阴离子聚合在-70℃在四氢呋喃中反应，异丁烯的阳离子聚合在-100℃在液态乙烯中反应）。With ionic polymerization there is no compulsory chain termination through recombination, because the growing chains can not react with each other.

对于离子聚合来说，因为生长链之间不能发生反应，不存在通过再结合反应而进行的强迫链终止。

Chain termination takes place only through impurities, or through the addition of certain compounds such as water, alcohols, acids, amines, or oxygen, and in general through compounds which can react with polymerization ions under the formation of neutral compounds or inactive ionic species.

链终止反应仅仅通过杂质而发生，或者说通过和某些像水、醇、酸、胺或氧这样的化合物进行加成而发生，且一般来说（链终止反应）可通过这样的化合物来进行，这种化合物可以和活性聚合物离子进行反应生成中性聚合物或没有聚合活性的离子型聚合物。

If the initiators are only partly dissociated, the initiation reaction is an equilibrium reaction, where reaction in one direction gives rise to chain initiation and in the other direction to chain termination.

如果引发剂仅仅部分地离解，引发反应即为一个平衡反应，在出现平衡反应的场合，在一个方向上进行链引发反应，而在另一个方向上则发生链终止反应。

In general ionic polymerization can be initiated through acidic or basic compounds.

通常离子聚合反应能通过酸性或碱性化合物被引发。

For cationic polymerization, complexes of BF3, AlCl3, TiCl4, and SnCl4 with water, or alcohols, or tertiary oxonium salts have shown themselves to be particularly active. The positive ions are the ones that cause chain initiation. For example:

对于阳离子聚合反应来说，BF3,AlCl3,TiCl4和SnCl4与水、或乙醇，或叔烊盐的络合物活性特别高。正离子产生链引发。例如：

However, also with HCl, H2SO4, and KHSO4, one can initiate cationic polymerization. Initiators for anionic polymerization are alkali metals and their organic compounds, such as phenyllithium, butyllithium, phenyl sodium, and triphenylmethyl potassium, which are more or less strongly dissociated in different solvents.

但BF3与HCl、H2SO4和KHSO4也可以引发阳离子聚合反应。阴离子聚合反应的引发剂是碱金属和它们的有机金属化合物，例如苯基锂、丁基锂和三苯甲基锂，它们在溶剂中高度离解。

To this group belong also the so called Alfin catalysts, which are a mixture of sodium isopropylate, allyl sodium, and sodium chloride.

所谓的Alfin催化剂就是属于这一类，这类催化剂是异丙醇钠、烯丙基钠和氯化钠的混合物。

With BF3 (and isobutylene as the monomer), it was demonstrated that the polymerization is possible only in the presence of traces of traces of water or alcohol.

BF3为引发剂（异丁烯为单体），在痕量水或乙醇下聚合反应才可以进行。

If one eliminates the trace of water, BF3 alone does not give rise to polymerization. Water or alcohols are necessary in order to allow the formation of the BF3-complex and the initiator cation according to the above reactions. However, one should not describe the water or the alcohol as a “cocatalyst”.

如果消除痕量的水，BF3单独不会引发聚合反应。对于上述反应，水或乙醇对于形成BF3-络合物和引发剂离子是必需的。但是水或乙醇不应认为是“助催化剂”。Just as by radical polymerization, one can also prepare copolymers by ionic polymerization, for example, anionic copolymers of styrene and butadiene, or cationic copolymers of isobutylene and styrene, or isobutylene and viny ethers, etc.

与自由基聚合反应一样，通过离子聚合反应也能制备共聚物，例如，苯乙烯-丁二烯阴离子共聚物，或异丁烯-苯乙烯阳离子共聚物，或异丁烯-乙烯基醚共聚物，等等。

As has been described in detail with radical polymerization, one can characterize each monomer pair by so-called reactivity ratios r1 and r2.

Traditional methods of living polymerization are based on ionic, coordination or group transfer mechanisms.

活性聚合的传统方法是基于离子，配位或基团转移机理。

Ideally, the mechanism of living polymerization involves only initiation and propagation steps.

理论上活性聚合的机理只包括引发和增长反应步骤。

All chains are initiated at the commencement of polymerization and propagation continues until all monomer is consumed.

在聚合反应初期所有的链都被引发，然后增长反应继续下去直到所有的单体都被消耗殆尽。

A type of novel techniques for living polymerization, known as living (possibly use “controlled” or “mediated”) radical polym erization, is developed recently.

最近开发了一种叫做活性自由基聚合的活性聚合新技术。

The first demonstration of living radical polymerization and the current definition of the processes can be attributed to Szwarc.

第一个活性自由基聚合的证实及目前对这一过程的解释或定义，应该归功于Szwarc。

Up to now, several living radical polymerization processes, including atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization (RAFT), nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP), etc., have been reported one after another.

到目前为止，一些活性自由基聚合过程，包括原子转移自由基聚合，可逆加成-断裂链转移聚合，硝基氧介导聚合等聚合过程一个接一个被报道。

The mechanism of living radical polymerization is quite different not only from that of common radical polymerization but also from that of traditional living polymerization.

活性自由基聚合的机理不仅完全不同于普通自由基聚合机理，也不同于传统的活性聚合机理。

It relies on the introduction of a reagent that undergoes reversible termination with the propagating radicals thereby converting them to a following dormant form：

活性自由基聚合依赖于向体系中引入一种可以和增长自由基进行可逆终止的试剂，形成休眠种：

The specificity in the reversible initiation-termination step is of critical importance in achieving living characteristics.

这种特殊的可逆引发-终止反应对于获得分子链活性来说具有决定性的重要意义。

This enables the active species concentration to be controlled and thus allows such a condition to be chosen that all chains are able to grow at a similar rate (if not simultaneously) throughout the polymrization.

可逆引发终止使活性中心的浓度能够得以控制。这样就可以来选择适宜的反应条件，使得在整个聚合反应过程中(只要没有平行反应)所有的分子链都能够以相同的速度增长。

This has, in turn, enabled the synthesis of polymers with controlled composition, architecture and molecular weight distribution.

这样就可以合成具有可控组成，结构和分子量分布的聚合物。

They also provide routes to narrow dispersity end-functional polymers, to high purity block copolymers, and to stars and other more complex architecture.

这些还可以提供获得狭窄分布末端功能化聚合物，高纯嵌段共聚物，星型及更复杂结构高分子的合成方法。

The first step towards living radical polymerization was taken by Ostu and his colleagues in 1982.

活性自由基聚合是Ostu和他的同事于1982年率先开展的。

In 1985, this was taken one step further with the development by Solomon et al. of nitroxide-mediated polymerization (NMP).

1985年，Solomon等对氮氧化物稳定自由基聚合的研究使活性自由基聚合进一步发展。

This work was first reported in the patent literature and in conference papers but was not widely recognized until 1993 when Georges et al. applied the method in the synthesis of narrow polydispersity polystyrene.

这种方法首先在专利文献和会议论文中报道，但是直到1993年Georges等把这种方法应用在窄分子量分布聚苯乙烯之后，才得以广泛认知。

The scope of NMP has been greatly expended and new, more versatile, methods have appeared.

NMP的领域已经得到很大的延展，出现了新的更多样化的方法。

The most notable methods are atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and polymerization with reversible addition fragmentation (RAFT).

最引人注目的方法是原子转移自由基聚合和可逆加成断裂聚合。

Up to 2000, this area already accounted for one third of all papers in the field of radical polymerization, as shown in Fig.5.1.

到2000年，这个领域的论文已经占所有自由基聚合领域论文的三分之一。如图5.1所示。

Naturally, the rapid growth of the number of the papers in the field since 1995 ought to be almost totally attributable to development in this area.

The molecular weight of a polymer is of prime importance in its synthesis and application.

Prime, 最初的，基本的，首要的，首位的，最好的，第一流的

对聚合物的合成和应用而言，聚合物的分子量是最重要的。

The interesting and useful mechanical properties which are uniquely associated with polymeric materials are a consequence of their high molecular weight.

令人感兴趣的和具有使用价值的力学性能与高分子材料存在的唯一的相关性，而这些性能是聚合物的高分子量带来的。

聚合物材料的高分子量带来了令人感兴趣的和具有利用价值的力学性能。

Most important mechanical properties depend on and vary considerably with molecular weight.

最重要的力学性能取决于分子量，而且随着分子量变化而发生很大的变化。

Thus, strength of polymer does not begin to develop until a minimum molecular weight of about 5000～ 10 000 is achieved.

因此,直到最小分于量增大到大约5 000～10 000 以后, 聚合物的强度才开始显示出来.

Above that size, there is a rapid increase in the mechanical performance of polymers as their molecular weight increases; the effect levels off at still higher molecular weights. Level off …达到平衡，变平缓，趋缓

分子量大于这个值的时候，随着分子量的增加，聚合物的机械性能快速增加;达到更高的分子量的时候，这种效应才变平缓。

In most instances, there is some molecular weight range in which a given polymer property will be optimum for a particular application.

In most instances, 在大多数情况下 Optimum ，最适条件，最适度，最适合的

在大多数情况下，对于某种特定的应用来说，某种聚合物存在着某一个分子量范围。

The control of molecular weight is essential for the practical application of a polymerization process.

Be essential for …, 对……是必需的

聚合物分子量的控制对聚合过程的实际应用而言是必需的。对实际的聚合过程而言，必须控制聚合物的分子量。

When one speaks of the molecular weight of a polymer, one means something quite different from that which applies to small-sized compounds.

Speak of …，谈到……..

当人们谈到聚合物分子量的时候，他所指的是和(适用于)低分子化合物的分子量完全不同的另一回事。

Polymers differ from the small-sized compounds in that they are polydisperse or heterogeneous in molecular weight.

Differ from …，与……..不同，或不一致。 Polydisperse, 多分散性的 Heterogeneous,不均匀的，非均相的，

聚合物与小分子量化合物的不同在于聚合物的分子量是多分散性的或不均匀的。

Even if a polymer is synthesized free from contaminants and impurities, it is still not a pure substance in the usually accepted sense.

Free from …,没有……，无…….. Contaminant,污物 Impurity, 杂质 In the usually accepted sense …，在能被人们广泛接受的意义上

即使聚合物在没有污物和杂质的情况下被合成，在人们广泛接受的意义上，它仍然不是纯物质。

Polymers, in their purest form, are mixture of molecules of different molecular weights.

最纯净的聚合物是具有不同分子量的分子的混合物。

The reason for the polydispersity of polymers lies in the statistical variations present in the polymerization processes.

Lie in …，在于……. Statistical, 统计的 Variation [v ?r i’eiS ?n],n ，变化，改变

聚合物多分散性在于聚合过程中展现的统计变化。

When one discusses the molecular weight of a polymer, one is actually involved with its average molecular weight.

当我们讨论聚合物的分子量，准确的含义是平均分子量。

Both the average molecular weight and the exact distribution of different molecular weights within a polymer are required in order to fully characterize it.

In order to, 为了……

为了充分地表征聚合物，不仅要求平均分子量，而且也要求聚合物内不同分子量的确切的分布情况。

The control of molecular weight and molecular weight distribution (MWD) is often used to obtain and improve certain desired physical properties in a polymer product. 为了获得和改善聚合物产品的某些理想的物理性质，我们经常需要控制分子量和分子量分布。

Various methods are available for the experimental measurement of the average molecular weight of a polymer sample.

在聚合物样品平均分子量的实验测试中有许多方法可以利用。

These include methods based on colligative properties, light scattering, viscosity, ultracentrifugation, and sedimentation.

Colligative property, 依数性； Light scattering, 光散射 Viscosity,粘度法 Ultracentrifugation, 超速离心分离 Sedimentation,沉降法

这些方法基于依数性，光散射，粘度法，超速离心分离，沉降法。

The various methods do not yield the same average molecular weight.

不同的方法得到不同的平均分子量。

Different average molecular weights are obtained because the properties being measured are biased different toward the different sized polymer molecules in a polymer sample.

biase *‘bai ?s],斜线，倾向性，偏向

Be biased toward ….,有….偏向，偏于…

(对同一聚合物)得到了不同的平均分子量，因为所测得的性质对试样中不同尺寸的聚合物分子有不同的偏差。

Some methods are biased toward the larger sized polymer molecules, while other methods are biased toward the smaller sized molecules.

一些方法对较大尺寸的聚合物分子有偏差（倾向性），而另外一些方法则对较小尺寸的聚合物分子有偏差（倾向性）。

The result is that the average molecular weights obtained are correspondingly biased toward the larger or smaller sized molecules.

所获得的平均分子量分别对较大的或较小的分子有（偏差）倾向性。

The most important average molecular weights which are determined are the number-average molecular weight Mn, the weight-average molecular weight Mw and the viscosity-average molecular weight Mv.。

被测定的最重要平均分子量有数均分子量Mn, 重均分子量Mw,和粘均分子量Mv.

In addition to the different average molecular weights of a polymer sample, it is frequently desirable and necessary to know the exact distribution of molecular weights. 除聚合物样品的不同的平均分子量外，经常需要知道确切的分子量分布。

A variety of different fractionation methods are used to determine the molecular weight distribution of a polymer sample.

A variety of …,各种各样的 Fractionation[fr?kS ?’neiS ?n],分级

各种各样的不同的分级方法被用来确定聚合物样品的分子量分布。

These are based on fractionation of a polymer sample using properties, such as solubility and permeability, which vary with molecular weight.

Solubility, 溶解性 Permeability, 渗透性

Dissolving a polymer is a slow process that occurs in two stages.

溶解高分子需要一个缓慢的过程，这个过程分两步发生。

First, solvent molecules slowly diffuse into the polymer to produce a swollen gel. Diffuse，vt，扩散。Diffusion，n，扩散溶剂分子缓慢地扩散到高分子中产生溶胀凝胶。

This may be all that happens if，for example，the polymer-polymer intermolecular forces are high because of crosslinking，crystallinity·or strong hydrogen bonding. 例如, 如果因交联，结晶和很强的氢键而形成很大的分子间力，(聚合物的溶解过程)有可能就只停留在这一阶段。

But if these forces can be overcome by the introduction of strong polymer-solvent interactions, the second stage of solution can take place.

但是如果这些力被强的高分子-溶剂之间相互作用克服，溶解的第二阶段就会发生。

Here the gel gradually disintegrates into a true solution. Disintegrate，分解，崩解，分裂，蜕变；disintegrable，能（在水中）崩解的

即，凝胶逐渐变成一个真正的溶液。

Only this stage can be materially speeded by agitation.

Agitation，搅拌，agitate，vt，搅拌，搅动，鼓动。注意：Stir之间的区别。

Agitator，stirrer，都是搅拌器，stirrer更强调具有反应的搅拌器。Speed, vt, 促进；materially, ad,物质上，实质上，大大地，相当地

只有这个阶段可以通过搅拌得到明显促进。

Even so, the solution process can be quite slow (days or weeks) for materials of very high molecular weight. Even so，虽然如此

虽然如此，对高分子量的材料而言，溶解过程是相当缓慢的（几天或几个星期）。

Solubility relations in polymer systems are more complex than those among low molecular-weight compounds, because of the size differences between polymer and solvent molecules, the viscosity of the system, and the effects of the texture and molecular weight of the polymer.

因为高分子和溶剂分子之间尺寸上的区别，体系的粘度以及聚合物分子量及织态结构的影响等原因，高分子体系的溶解性关系比低分子量化合物要复杂得多。In turn，the presence or absence of solubility as conditions(such as the nature of the solvent，or the temperature)are varied can give much information about the polymer.

当条件(溶剂的性质或温度)变化的时候，有无溶解性又可提供出许多关于这种聚合物的信息。

As specified in the literature，the arrangements of the polymer chain differing by reason of rotations about single bands are termed conformations.

Specify, 定义，literature,文献，by reason of…由于….的原因Be termed…被定义为….，叫做……..arrangement，排布，排列Conformation，构象

正如在文献中所定义的那样，由于围绕着单键的旋转而导致的聚合物链不同的空间排布叫做构象。

In solution, a polymer molecule is a randomly coiling mass most of whose conformations occupy[‘okjupai+ many times the volume of its segments alone.

Segment, 链段，randomly，无规则的，coiling，线团状的，mass，物质，质点

在溶液中，聚合物分子是无规线团状,而大部分构象占链段分子自身体积的许多倍。

The average density of segments within a dissolved polymer molecule is of 10-4~10-5g/cm3.

溶解聚合物分子里的平均链段密度是10-4~10-5g/cm3

The size of the molecular coil is very much influenced by the polymer-solvent interaction forces.

聚合物-溶剂之间的作用力对分子线团尺寸有很大的影响。

In a thermodynamically “good” solvent, where polymer-solvent contacts are highly favored, the coils are relatively extended.

在热力学上的好溶剂中，聚合物-溶剂作用较强，线团是相对伸展的。

In a “poor” solvent they are relatively contracted.

Contracted，收缩的，缩小的，缩短的，已订婚的

而在不良溶剂中，线团则是相对收缩的。

It is the purpose to describe the conformational properties of both ideal and real polymer chains.

使用上述方法的目的是描述理想的和真实的聚合物链构象。

The importance of the random-coil nature of the dissolved, molten, amorphous, and glassy states of high polymers cannot be overemphasized.

Overemphasize, [ouv?’emf?saiz],过分强调

我们无论怎样强调溶解的，熔融的，无定形的，玻璃态的高分子无规线团性质的重要性都不过分。

Many important physical as well as thermodynamic properties of high polymers result from this characteristic structural feature.

高分子的许多重要的物理及热力学性质都是这个结构特征引起的。

The random coil(Fig. 7. 1) arises from the relative freedom of rotation associated with the chain bonds of most polymers and the formidably large number of conformations accessible to the molecule.

Arise from 由于…….而产生，而造成，起因于……. Associate with….联合…..，与……发生联系Formidably, 可怕地，难对付地，难克服地Accessible to...为……..所能达到的…….

无规线团(图7. 1)一方面是由于聚合物链上的键自由旋转而产生的，另一方面是由于(聚合物)分子(链)可达到巨大的构象数而产生的。Fig. Tab.

One of these conformations, the fully extended chain has special interest because its length, the contour length of the chain, can be calculated in a straightforward way. Contour，外形，轮廓，contour length ，伸直长度，

in a straightforward way，直接地

我们对这些构象之一，也是充分伸展的链有特殊的兴趣，因为它的长度，即链的伸直长度可以直接地计算出来。

In all other cases the size of the random coil must be expressed in terms of statistical parameters such as the root-mean-square distance between its ends, (r2)1/2, or its radius of gyration, the root-mean-square distance of the elements of the chain from its center of gravity, (s2)1/2.

the elements of the chain,链节。radius of gyration ，回转半径，回旋半径。For linear polymers that are not appreciably extended beyond their most probable shape, the mean-square end-to-end distance and the square of the radius of gyration are simply related:r2=6s2. for extended chains r2>6s2.

Appreciably，可估计地，可感觉到地

在线型聚合物的形状没有超出的充分伸展的情况下，平均末端距离的平方和回转半径之间可以简单地相关：r2=6s2。对伸展链则有：r2>6s2.

The use of the radius of gyration is sometimes preferred because it can be determined experimentally.

有时回旋半径更为常用，因为它可以用实验来确定。center of gravity，重心，质心。

Solid polymers differ from ordinary, low molecular weight compounds in the nature of their physical state or morphology.

固体聚合物在物理态的性质或形态是有别于普通低分子量化合物。

Most polymers simultaneously show the characteristics of both crystalline solids and highly viscous liquids.

大多数聚合物同时体现结晶固体和高粘液体的特性。

X-ray and electron diffraction patterns often show the sharp features typical of three-dimensionally ordered，crystalline materials as well as the diffuse features materials characteristic of liquids.

(固体聚合物的)X射线图样和电子衍射图样常常会显示出三维有序晶体材料所具有的边缘清晰的特征，也会显示出液体的所具有的边缘模糊的特征。

The fringed-micelle theory, developed in the 1930’s, considers polymer to consist of small-sized, ordered crystalline regions-termed crystallities-imbedded in an unordered, amorphous polymer matrix.

The fringed-micelle theory, 缨状胶束理论Imbed, vt, 包埋，嵌入，埋入。

在上世纪三十年代发展的缨状胶束理论认为聚合物由小尺寸，规则晶区即所谓的微晶包埋到不规则的，无定形聚合物基体组成。

Polymer molecules are considered to pass through several different crystalline regions with crystallites being formed when segments from different polymer chains are precisely aligned together and undergo crystallization.

Consider…to do…,把……..看作是……..干的 Align, vt, 排列

当来自不同聚合物链的链段精确地排列在一起结晶时，认为伴随着微晶的生成，聚合物分子会通过几个不同的晶区.

Each polymer chain can contribute ordered segments to several crystallities.

Contribute…to…,把…….贡献给…….

每个聚合物链可以提供规则链段到几个微晶。

The segments of the chain in between the crystallites make up the unordered amorphous matrix. This concept of polymer crystallinity is shown in Fig. 7.1.

在微晶之间的聚合物链段形成不规则的无定形基体。聚合物结晶性概念如图7.1所示。

The folded-chain lamella theory arose in the late 1950’s when polymer single crystals in the form of thin platelets termed lamella were grown form polymer solutions. 上世纪50年代末期，当（发现）聚合物单晶以薄片的形式即所谓的片晶从聚合物溶液中生长的时候，提出了折叠链片晶理论。

The diffraction patterns of these single crystals indicate that the polymer molecules fold back and forth on themselves like in an accordion in the process of crystallization (Fig. 7.2).

Back and forth, 来回，前后

这些单晶的衍射图显示，在结晶过程中，聚合物分子来回折叠就像一个手风琴。

The theory of chain-folding applies generally to most polymers-not only for solution-grown single crystals, but also for polymers crystallized from the melt.

折叠理论一般应用于大多数高分子，不仅用于溶液生长单晶，而且也适用于熔融结晶聚合物。

Semi-crystalline polymers are considered by advocates of the folded-chain theory to be chain-folded crystal with varying amounts of defects.

Advocate，提倡，拥护，提倡者，辩护者。

Defect,缺陷。

折叠链理论的拥护者认为半结晶聚合物是具有不同数量缺陷的折叠链晶体。

The crystallinity of polymers is pictured as being completely similar to that of low molecular weight compounds.

Be pictured as…可想象为………

聚合物的结晶性可想象成完全类似于低分子量化合物的结晶性。

The defects in the chain folded crystals may be imperfect folds, irregularities in packing, chain entanglements, loose chain ends, dislocations, occluded impurities, or numerous other imperfections.

Packing, n, 堆砌Entanglement, n, 缠结，纠缠Dislocation，n，错位，位错Occluded，a，夹杂的，夹带的Medium，n，介质，a，中等的，中间的

在链折叠结晶中的缺陷可以是不完整的折叠，不规则的堆砌，链缠结，疏松的链末端，错位，夹杂的杂质或许多其他的不完整性。

The fringed-micelle and folded-chain theories of polymer crystallinity are often considered to be mutually exclusive but they need not be so considered.

Mutually, 相互地，彼此地，共同地Exclusive，除外的，排外的，孤立的，专有的，唯一的，全部的

经常认为聚合物结晶的缨状胶束和折叠链理论是相互排斥的，其实不是这样的。

It is usually practical to adopt a working model of polymer crystallinity which employs the features of both concepts.

实际工作中常采用聚合物结晶性的工作模型，这个模型兼有两者的特征。

The folded chain theory is especially well suited for highly crystalline polymers where one can consider them to be one phase crystalline systems with defects.

折叠链理论特别适用于高结晶聚合物，高结晶聚合物被认为是具有缺陷的单相结晶体系。

Polymers with medium to low crystallinity can often be advantageously treated by the fringed micellel concept as two phase systems composed of crystallites imbedded in uncrystallized，amorphous polymer.

Treat…as…, 把…..作为……来处理; Advantageously，有力地，有助地Compose of 由……..组成

具有从中等到较低结晶度的聚合物常常适用于缨状微束理论作为两相体系来处理，这些体系是由微晶包埋在非结晶的无定形聚合物中而构成的。

The fringed-micelle and folded-chain theories of polymer crystallinity are often considered to be mutually exclusive but they need not be so considered.

Mutually, 相互地，彼此地，共同地Exclusive，除外的，排外的，孤立的，专有的，唯一的，全部的

经常认为聚合物结晶的缨状胶束和折叠链理论是相互排斥的，其实不是这样的。

It is usually practical to adopt a working model of polymer crystallinity which employs the features of both concepts.

实际工作中常采用聚合物结晶性的工作模型，这个模型兼有两者的特征。

The folded chain theory is especially well suited for highly crystalline polymers where one can consider them to be one phase crystalline systems with defects.

折叠链理论特别适用于高结晶聚合物，高结晶聚合物被认为是具有缺陷的单相结晶体系。

Polymers with medium to low crystallinity can often be advantageously treated by the fringed micellel concept as two phase systems composed of crystallites imbedded in uncrystallized，amorphous polymer.

Treat…as…, 把…..作为……来处理; Advantageously，有力地，有助地Compose of 由……..组成

Most conveniently, polymers are generally subdivided in three categories, [namely]viz., plastics, rubbers and fibers.

Subdivide, v. 细分，区分。Subdivide…in…把……细分为…….. Categories[k?tig?ri], n，种类，类型。Categorization, n, 分类法

聚合物一般细分为三种类型，就是塑料，橡胶和纤维。

In terms of initial elastic modules, rubbers ranging generally between 106 to 107dynes/cm2, represent the lower end of the scale, while fibers with high initial moduli [modjulai, modulus的复数] of 1010 to 1011dynes/cm2 are situated on the upper end of the scale; plastics, having generally an initial elastic modulus of 108 to 109dynes/cm2, lie in-between.

Modulus, moduli[复数]，模量In terms of…, 根据，借助于，利用，就……..而言Range(from)…to…,落在（从）………到………之间；分布在…….到……..范围内。Be situated on [at, in]…处于，位于，坐落在

就初始弹性模量而言，橡胶一般在106到107达因/平方厘米，在尺度的低端，而纤维具有高的初始模量，达到1010到1011达因/平方厘米，在尺度的高端，塑料的弹性模量一般在108到109达因/平方厘米，在尺度的中间。

As is found in all phases of polymer chemistry, there are many exceptions to this categorization

Phase，阶段，状态，方面，侧面; Exception to…,……的例外情况

在高分子化学的各个方面，我们发现这种分类方法有许多例外的情况。

An elastomer (or rubber) results from a polymer having relatively weak interchain forces and high molecular weights.

Result from…, （作为结果）发生，产生，形成

弹性体是具有相对弱的链之间作用力和高分子量的聚合物。

When the molecular chains are ‘straightened out’ or stretched by a process of extension, they do not have sufficient attracti on for each other to maintain the oriented state and will retract once the force is released.

straightened out，拉直，打开;stretch,拉直，拉长; extension，n，伸长，伸展attraction，引力，吸引；attraction for……. 对…….的引力

orient，v，定向，取向; retract，v，收缩

当通过一个拉伸过程将分子链拉直的时候，分子链彼此之间没有足够的相互吸引力来保持其定向状态，作用力一旦解除，将发生收缩。

However, if the interchain forces are very great, a polymer will make a good fiber.

然而，如果分子链之间的力非常大，聚合物可以用做纤维。

Therefore, when the polymer is highly stretched, the oriented chain will come under the influence of the powerful attractive forces and will “crystallize” permanently in a more or less oriented matrix.

come under，受……的影响(支配) more or less, 近乎，大体上，在不同程度上permanently，永久地，持久地

因此，当聚合物被高度拉伸的时候，取向分子链将受强引力的影响在有取向的基体中“永久地结晶”。

These crystallization forces will then act virtually as crosslinks, resulting in a material of high tensile strength and high initial modulus, i.e., a fiber.

Virtually，实际上，实质上，事实上

这些结晶力实际上以交联方式作用，产生高拉伸强度和高初始模量的材料，即纤维。

Therefore, a potential fiber polymer will not become a fiber unless subjected to a 'drawing' process, i.e., a process resulting in a high degree of intermolecular orientation.

Be subject to…,经受，受到…….

因此，可以制成纤维的聚合物将不成其为纤维，除非经受一个抽丝拉伸过程，即一个可以形成分子间高度取向的过程。

Crosslinked species are found in all three categories and the process of crosslinking may change the cited characteristics of the categories.

Cite, vt，引用，引证，举例；citation，n，引用，引文

交联的种类在所有三种类型（塑料，橡胶，纤维）中找到，而交联过程可以改变各类的典型特征。

Thus, plastics are known to possess[p?zes] a marked range of deformability in the order of 100 to 200%; they do not exhibit this property when crosslinked, however. Deformability，形变能力，变形性in the order of…….，大约………

因此，我们熟知塑料具有的形变能力大约在100-200%范围内，然而当交联发生时塑料不能展示这个性能。

Rubber, on vulcanization, changes its properties from low modulus, low tensile strength, low hardness, and high elongation to high modulus, high tensile strength, high hardness, and low elongation.

Vulcanization*vΛlk?nai’zeiS?n]，硫化

对橡胶而言，硫化可以改变其性质，从低模量，低拉伸强度，低硬度及高拉伸率到高模量，高拉伸强度，高硬度及低拉伸率。

Thus, polymers may be classified as noncrosslinked and crosslinked, and this definition agrees generally with the subclassification in thermoplastic and thermoset polymers.

这样，聚合物可以分为非交联和交联的，这个定义与把聚合物细分为热塑性和热固性聚合物相一致。

From the mechanistic point of view, however, polymers are properly divided into addition polymers and condensation polymers. Both of these species are found in rubbers, plastics, and fibers.

From the mechanistic point of view，从反应机理的观点看，

然而，从反应机理的观点看，聚合物可以分成加聚物和缩聚物。这些种类聚合物在塑料，橡胶和纤维中都可以找得到。

In many cases polymers are considered from the mechanistic point of view. Also, the polymer will be named according to its source whenever it is derived from a specific hypothetical monomer, or when it is derived from two or more components which are built randomly into the polymer.

Be derive from…由…….产生而来，来自于………. hypothetical monomer，假想单体

在许多情况下，聚合物可以从反应机理的角度考虑分类。也可以根据聚合物的的来源来命名,无论来源是一个假想单体，或来自于两个或两个以上无规构建聚合物的组分。

This classification agrees well with the presently used general practice.

Agree well with…. 与……..相符合。

这种分类方法与目前实际情况相符合。

When the repeating unit is composed of several monomeric components following each other in a regular fashion, the polymer is commonly named according to its structure.

in a regular fashion，规则地

当重复单元由几个单体组分规则排布时，聚合物通常根据它的结构来命名。

It must be borne in mind that, with the advent of Ziegler-Natta mechanisms and new techniques to improve extend crystallinity, and the cIoseness of packing of chains, many older data given should be critically considered in relation to the stereoregular and crystalline structure.

Bear in mind, 牢记，记住With advent of…,随着…..的出现in relation to，关于……与……有关the closeness of packing of chains，链堆砌密度“必须记住，随着Ziegler-Natta机理的，以及提高结晶度和链堆砌紧密度新技术的出现，许多与立构规整和晶体结构相关的旧数据应当批判地接受。

The properties of polymers are largely dependent on the type and extent of both stereoregularity and crystallinity. As an example, the densities and melting points of atactic and isotactic species are presented in Table 9.1.

Stereoregularity，立体规整性，立体规整度Atactic,a,无规立构的，Isotactic, a, 等规立构的，全同立构的

UNIT 10 Glass transition temperature

An ordinary rubber ball if cooled below -70°C becomes so hard and brittle that it will break into pieces like a glass ball falling on a hard surface! Why does a rubber ball become like glass bellow -70°C?

break into：摔碎

一个普通的橡胶球被冷却到零下70度以下，就会变得又硬又脆，掉在硬表面上就会像玻璃球一样破碎成碎片。为什么橡胶球在零下70度以下就变得像玻璃一样了？

This is because there is a “temperature boundary” for almost all amorphous polymers (and many crystalline polymers) only abov e which the substance remains soft, flexible and rubbery and below which it becomes hard, brittle and glassy.

这是因为几乎所有无定型聚合物(及许多结晶聚合物)都有一个“温度边界”，温度高于这个边界，材料保持软的柔韧的及橡胶状的，而高于这个边界，材料则变成硬的，脆的，玻璃状的。

This temperature, below which a polymer is hard and above which it is soft, is called the “glass transition temperature” Tg.

这个温度，低于这个温度聚合物是硬的，高于这个温度聚合物就是软的，这个温度就叫玻璃化温度，Tg.

The hard, brittle state is known as the glassy state and the soft, flexible state as the rubbery or viscoelastic state. Be known as：叫做

硬的，脆的状态叫做玻璃态，软的，柔韧的状态叫做橡胶态或粘弹态。

On further heating, the polymer (if it is uncross-linked) becomes a highly viscous liquid and starts flowing: this state is termed viscofluid state, and the another transition takes place at its flow temperature Tf. takes place: 发生

进一步加热，聚合物（如果它是非交联的）就变成高粘性液体而开始流动，这个状态叫做粘流态，另一个转变发生在聚合物流动温度上。

Now, let us consider a polymer, say, polyethylene. At room temperature, polyethylene is solid, exhibiting all characteristics of a low molecular weight substance.

现在让我们考虑一下一个聚合物，叫聚乙烯。在室温下，聚乙烯是固体的，展现低分子量化合物的所有特征。

At high temperatures, however, the characteristic difference between high and low molecular weight substances can be seen.

然而，在高温下高分子量和低分子量物质之间的区别是显而易见的。

Depending on the temperature, the molecules of a low molecular weight substance either move apart as a whole or do not move at all. i. e., there is a definite temperature(melting point Tm) below which the molecules do not move and above which they do move.

Depending on：根据Move apart: 分开,分离,移开As a whole 作为一个整体, 整体(上)

根据温度, 低分子量的物质要么整个分子移开，要么根本不运动。有一个特定的温度(熔点Tm)在低于这一温度时分子不运动，而在高于这一温度时分子则在运动。

On the other hand, with polymers, if the temperature increases above Tg, localized units (chain segments) within the long chain molecule are first mobilized before the whole molecule starts moving.

对聚合物而言，另一方面，如果温度增加超过玻璃化温度，在整个长分子链内的局部单元（链段）在整个分子运动之前首先动起来。

In some parts within the molecule, there is a considerable localized motion, but not in other parts of the same molecule.

在这个分子的一部分有比较大的局部运动，而相同分子的另一部分则没有运动。

Thus, within the long chain of the polymer molecules, some segments have a certain freedom of movement, whereas others do not.

因此，在聚合物分子的长链内，一些链段有一定的运动自由度，而其它的链段则没有。

The molecule as a whole does not move although some of its segments do. In the case of polymers, there is indeed an intermediate state.

尽管分子的一些链段在动，分子整体是不动的。聚合物有一个中间状态。

If the temperature ranges between Tg and Tf, the localized mobility is activated, but the overall mobility is not.

如果温度在Tg 和Tf之间，局部的运动被激活，而整体的运动则没有。

The local segments, where mobility is already activated, correspond to the liquid state, while the molecule as a whole, where mobility is forbidden, is in the solid state. This state, which is really a combination of liquid and solid, is called the rubbery state.

correspond to: 相当于

局部链段的运动被激活，对应着液态，而整个分子的运动性受到限制，则仍处于固态。这个状态，实际上是液态和固态的结合，叫做橡胶态。

Under the influence of an applied stress, it exhibits properties of a viscous fluid as well as an elastic solid and undergoes what is called viscoelastic deformation.

在外加应力的作用下，聚合材料既显示出粘性液体的性质，也显示出弹性固体的性质，而经历的过程叫做粘弹形变。

The glass transition temperature Tg is an important parameter of a polymeric material. The Tg value of a polymer decides whet her a polymer at the “use temperature” will behave like rubber or plastics.

玻璃化转变温度Tg是聚合物材料的重要参数。聚合物的Tg决定聚合物在使用温度下究竟是体现橡胶的还是塑料的行为。

The Tg value along with the Tm value gives an indication of the temperature region at which a polymeric material transforms from a rigid solid to a soft viscous state。give an indication of: 表明，表示trasforms from... to... 由…转变成

Tg值和Tm值表明了一个温度范围，在这个范围内聚合材料由刚性固体转化为柔软的粘流态。

This helps in choosing the right processing temperature, i.e., the temperature region in which the material can be converted into finished products though different processing techniques such as moulding, calendering, extrusion, etc. be converted into: 转化为

Functional polymers are macromolecules to which chemically functional groups are attached; they have the potential advantages of small molecules with the same functional groups.

功能聚合物是具有化学功能基团的大分子，这些聚合物与具有相同功能基团的小分子一样具有潜在的优点。

Their usefulness is related both to the functional groups and to the nature of the polymers whose characteristic properties depend mainly on the extraordinarily large

size of the molecules.

它们(功能聚合物)之所以具有使用价值不仅与所带的官能团有关，而且与由巨大的分子尺寸所决定的聚合物的特性有关。

The attachment of functional groups to a polymer is frequently the first step towards the preparation of a functional polymer for a specific use.

把功能基团连接到聚合物上常常是制备特殊用途功能高分子的第一步。

However, the proper choice of the polymer is an important factor for successful application.

然而，对成功应用而言，选择适当的聚合物是一个重要因素。

In addition to the synthetic aliphatic and aromatic polymers, a wide range of natural polymers have also been functionalized and used as reactive materials. Aliphatic, 脂肪族的Aromatic，芳香族的In addition to…..，除了……之外，

除了合成的脂肪族和芳香族聚合物之外，许多天然高分子也被功能化，被用做反应性材料。

Inorganic polymers have also been modified with reactive functional groups and used in processes requiring severe*si’vi?] service conditions.

无机聚合物也已经用反应功能基团改性，被用于要求耐用条件的场合。

In principle, the active groups may be part of the polymer backbone or linked to a side chain as a pendant group either directly or via[vai?+ a spacer*s’peis?] group. pendant group 侧基;spacer group, 隔离基团，中间基团。

理论上讲，活基团可以是聚合物主链上的一部分，直接作为侧基或者通过隔离基团连接到侧链。

A required active functional group can be introduced onto a polymeric support chain (1) by incorporation during the synthesis of the support itself through poJymerization or copolymerization monomers containing the desired functional groups, (2) by chemical modification of a non-functionalized performed support matrix and (3) by a combination of (1) and (2).

可以用如下三种方法将所需要的活性官能团引入到聚合物主链上：(1)在合成主链聚合物时通过带有所需官能团的单件的均聚或共聚，使聚合物带上官能团；(2)将预先制成的未功能化的主链聚合物进行化学改性；(3)将(1)和(2)两种方法结合起来。”

Each of the two approaches has its own advantages and disadvantages, and one approach may be preferred for the preparation of a particular functional polymer when the other would be totally impractical.

两种途径中的每一种都有自身的优点和缺点，对特殊功能聚合物的制备而言，所选的方法或许是合适的，而另一种方法无法实现。

The choice between the two ways to the synthesis of functionalized polymers depends mainly on the required chemical and physical properties of the support for a specific application.

功能聚合物合成的两种方法中，如何选择主要取决于特殊应用要求的主链聚合物的化学和物理性质。

Usually the requirements of the individual system must be thoroughly examined in order to take full advantage of each of the preparative techniques.

take full advantage of….，充分利用…..

必须考虑不同体系的要求来充分利用不同制备方法。

Rapid progress in the utilization of functionalized polymeric materials has been noted in the recent past.

近年来，功能化聚合物材料的使用方面有了飞速的发展。

Interest in the field is being enhanced due to the possibility of creating systems that combine the unique properties of conventional active moieties and those of high molecular weight polymers.

Interest in，…….的（重大）意义，对…….关注

由于能够制造出兼有活性官能团特性和高分子量聚合物性能的功能聚合物-所以人们对(功能聚合物)这个领域的兴趣与日俱增。

The successful utilization of these polymers are based on the physical form, solvation behavior, porosity, chemical reactivity and stability of the polymers.

这些聚合物的成功利用主要基于功能聚合物的物理形态，溶液行为，空隙率，化学活性及稳定性。

The various types of functionalized polymers cover a broad range of chemical applications, including the polymeric reactants, catalysts, carriers, surfactants, stabilizers, ion-exchange resins, etc.

功能聚合物类型覆盖化学应用的各个领域，包括聚合物试剂，催化剂，载体，表面活性剂，稳定剂，离子交换树脂等。

In a variety of biological and biomedical fields, such as the pharmaceutical, agriculture, food industry and the like, they have become indispensable materials, especially in controlled release formulation of drugs and agrochemicals.

Pharmaceutical[fa:m?’sju:t ik?l],药品药物and the like，等等，以及诸如此类Indispensable，不可缺少的;controlled release，控制释放agrochemicals，农药，化肥在生物学及生物医学领域中，如药物，农业，食品工业等，功能聚合物是不可缺少的材料，尤其在药物和农药的控制释放配方上。

Besides, these polymers are extensively used as the antioxidants, flame retardants, corrosion inhibitors, flocculating agents, antistatic agents and the other technological applications.

Anti-,抗，反，对，解，阻，减。antioxidants, 抗氧化剂flame retardants, 阻燃剂corrosion inhibitors, 缓蚀剂flocculating*‘flokju:leiti?+ agents, 絮凝剂, floccule, n, 絮状物，絮状沉淀。Flocculent, adj, 羊毛状的，絮凝的，antistatic agents，抗静电剂

此外，这些聚合物被广泛地用做抗氧化剂，阻燃剂，缓蚀剂，絮凝剂，抗静电剂及其他技术应用。

In addition, the functional polymers possess[p?’zes+ broad application prospects in the high technology area as conductive materials, photosensitizers, nuclear track detectors, liquid crystals, the working substances for storage and conversion of solar energy, etc.

possess[p?’zes+,支配，控制，拥有，具有，掌握，克制，迷住。Prospects，展望，视野，景色，境界，[复数]前景，前程，前途

conductive materials, photosensitizers, 光敏剂nuclear track detectors,核径迹探测器

Reactors may be categorized in a variety of ways, each appropriate to a particular perspective.

反应器有许多分类方法，各自适用于特定的目的。

For example, Henglein (1969) chooses a breakdown based on the source of energy used to initiate the reaction (i.e., thermal, electrochemical, photochemical, nuclear). 例如，Henglein（1969）基于用于产生反应的能量来源（即热量，电化学能，光化学能，核能）选择了一种分类法。

More common breakdowns are according to the types of vessels and flows that exist.

更常见的分类是按照容器和流量的类型。

Batch Reactors

1. 间歇反应器

The batch reactor (BR) is the almost universal choice in the chemist’s laboratory where most chemical processes originate.

在化学实验室中通常大多数的化学过程选择间歇反应器。

The reason is the simplicity and versatility of the batch reactor, whether it be a test tube, a three-neck flask, an autoclave, or a cell in a spectroscopic instrument.

原因是间歇反应器简单和通用，它可以是一支试管，一个三颈瓶，一个高压釜，也可以是一个光谱仪器的比色皿。

Regardless of the rate of the reaction, these are clearly low production rate devices. As scale up is desired, the most straightforward approach is to move to a larger batch reactor such as a large vat or tank.

不管反应速率如何，间歇反应器生产率较低。当反应放大时，大多可直接的移至一个较大的间歇反应器进行，例如一个较大的大桶或罐。

Commercial batch reactors can be huge, 100 000 gal or more. The cycle time，often a day or more，typically becomes longer as reactor volume increases in order to achieve a substantial production rate with an inherently slow reaction.

商业间歇反应器比较庞大，体积为10万加仑或更大。对于慢化学反应，为提高生产率必须增加反应器体积，而这往往导致反应器的循环周期变长，常常以天计算。

Fabrication，shipping, or other factors place a limit the size of a batch reactor. For example, transportation capacity can limit the size of a batch reactor for which shop，as opposed to on—site，fabrication of the heat exchange surface is required.

制造、运输以及其他因素限制了反应器的规模，如由于需要在制造厂而不是现场制造间歇反应器的热交换器，这样间歇反应器的尺寸受运输能力的限制。

This limits the production rates for which batch reactors may be economically utilized. Also, batch reactors must be filled, emptied, and cleaned. For fast reactions these unproductive operations consume far more time than the reaction itself and continuous processes can become more attractive.

这限制了间歇反应器的有效利用，降低了产率。间歇反应器也必须装料、卸料和清洗。对于快反应来说，这些非生产性的操作消耗了多于反应本身的时间。这种情况下连续化过程更有吸引力。

2. Semibatch Reactors (SBR)

2.半间歇反应器

Some reactions may yield a product in a different phase from the reaction mixture. Examples would be liberation of a gas from a liquid-phase reaction or the formation of a precipitate in a fluid-phase reaction.

一些反应器可以从反应混合物的不同相态中生产出某种产品。例如液相反应中气体的释放，或流动相反应中沉淀的生成。

To drive the reaction to completion, it may be desirable to continuously separate the raw product phase. A semibatch operation may result as well from differing modes of feeding the individual reactants.

连续分离粗产物相可以使反应完全。半连续操作也来自于各种反应物的不同加入方式。

For reasons we will discuss later, it may be desirable to charge one reactant to the reactor at the outset and bleed a second reactant in continuously over time. Such reactors have both a batch and a flow character and, like batch reactors, are useful for slow reactions and low production rates.

这个原因我们以后讨论，我们一开始加入一种反应物，以后连续加入第二种反应物。这类反应器同时具有间歇和流动的特征，并且像间歇反应器一样适用于低生产速率的慢反应。

3. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR)

3. 连续流动搅拌反应器

It is a small step from the batch reactor to the CSTR. The same stirred vessel may be used with only the addition of piping and storage tanks to provide for the continuous in-and outflow.

从间歇反应器到连续流动搅拌反应器只是作了小的改进。同样的搅拌式容器可仅仅添加管道和储罐就可以提供连续进料和出料。

Faster reactions can be accommodated and larger production rates can be achieved because of the uninterrupted operation. CSTRs are most often used for liquid-phase reactions, such as nitration and hydrolysis, and multiphase reactions involving liquid with gases and/or solids. Examples would be chlorination and hydrogenation.

连续操作可加快反应并提高生产率。通常大多数连续流动搅拌反应器用于液相反应，如硝化和水解反应，和涉及液-气和/或液-固反应的多相反应，如氯化和加氢反应。

4. CSTR in Series

4.多级串联连续流动搅拌反应器

It was shown that considerable gains in production rate and economics can be achieved by passing the reacting mixture through a series of CSTRs. Again, we see how easy it is to achieve a gradual scale up, say for a specialty chemical for which is increasing. CSTRs in series are usually used for liquid-phase reactions.

事实证明将反应混合物通过一系列多级串联连续流动搅拌反应器能够获得高产率和更经济。再者，这种反应器容易逐级放大，例如某种化学品的需求逐步增加时常这样做。多级串联连续流动搅拌反应器通常用于液相反应。

5.Tubular Reactors

5.管式反应器

As the production rate requirement increases, batteries of CSTRs become increasingly complex and tubular reactors become attractive. With the transition to tubular reactors, some versatility is lost and more process integration is required.

当需要增加生产率时，连续搅拌式反应器的串联更为复杂，而管式反应器则更为适用。由于管式反应器合并多步操作工艺，其失去了其它反应器操作多样性的特点。

Nevertheless, tubular reactors find extensive application in liquid-phase reactions, for example, polymerization, and are almost always the continuous reactor of choice for gas-phase reactions, for example, pyrolysis.

尽管如此，管式反应器在聚合反应等液相反应中起着广泛作用。高温裂解等气-液反应也几乎总是选择管式连续反应器。

Exceedingly high production rates can be achieved with tubular reactors either by increasing the diameter of the tube or more commonly by using a sufficient number of tubes in parallel.

管式反应器通过增加管的直径，或使用大量的并列管能够获得非常高的产率。

6. Recycle reactors

6. 循环反应器

Recycle reactor can be batch, CSTR, tubular, and so on in nature with the purpose of the recycle varying from one case to the next. Many large-scale commercial processes incorporate the recycle of one or more streams back to an earlier point in the process to conserve raw materials.

循环反应器出于循环变化的目的不同，可以是间歇反应器、连续流动搅拌反应器、管式反应器等等。为节省原料，许多大规模工艺过程将一个或多个反应流循环回到较早的反应点。

This practice often results in the accumulation of impurities, which in turn requires separation. Usually it is not simply the reactor outlet stream that is recycled back to the reactor inlet, but it can be. For example in a batch reactor the reacting mixture can be recycled, or pumped around, through a heat exchanger to provide thermal control.

这一工艺通常导致了杂质的累积和相关的分离过程。通常循环不是简单地将反应器的出料返回到入口，当然也可以这样。例如，在间歇反应器中反应混合物可以回收，或用循环，并通过热交换器来控制热量。

Recycle reactor have also found valuable application in the laboratory and pilot plant because of their special characteristics. At one extreme, in which all of the product is recycled (no net flow), the reactor is the exact equivalent of the well-stirred batch reactor.

根据其特性，循环反应器也很好地应用于实验室和中试车间。一个极端情况是将所有的产物循环（没有净的流出），此时循环反应器等效于全混间歇反应器。

At the other extreme of no recycle, the reactor is simply the tubular variety. If there is some net flow but the recycle rate is high, the overall reactor performs like a CSTR. Yet the reaction tube itself behaves like differential tubular reactor. This versatility of the recycle reactor can be exploited to great advantage in research and development.

另一个极端情况是没有循环，反应器只是管式反应器。如果有净的流出但循环率很高，反应器类似于连续流动搅拌反应器运行，然而反应器本身性质和微分管式

Bulk polymerization traditionally has been defined as the formation of polymer from pure, undiluted monomers. Incidental amounts of solvents and small amounts of catalysts, promoters, and chain-transfer agents may also be present according to the classical definition.

传统意义上，本体聚合为从纯的未被稀释的单体形成聚合物的方法。可能还有少量溶剂和催化剂，促进剂和链转移剂

This definition, however, serves little practical purpose. It includes a wide variety of polymers and polymerization schemes that have little in common, particularly from the viewpoint of reactor design.

但是这个定义没有实际用途。特别是从反应器设计的角度看，它包括各种各样的聚合物和聚合反应，相同点很少。

The modern gas-phase process for polyethylene satisfies the classical definition, yet is a far cry from the methyl methacrylate and styrene polymerization which remain single-phase throughout the polymerization and are typically thought of as being bulk.

根据传统的定义，现代的气相聚乙烯工艺属于本体聚合过程，但与通常认为的甲基丙烯酸甲脂和苯乙烯的典型本体聚合过程截然不同，后者在整个聚合反应过程中始终保持单相体系。

A common feature of most bulk polymerization and other processes not traditionally classified as such is the need to process fluids of very high viscosity.

大多数本体聚合和其他没有被定义为本体聚合的工艺的一个共同特点是需要处理非常高粘度的流体。

The high viscosity results from the presence of dissolved polymer in a continuous liquid phase. Significant concentrations of a high molecular-weight polymer typically increase fluid viscosities by 104 or more compared to the unreacted monomers.

聚合物溶解在连续液相产生高粘度。高浓度的高分子量聚合物通常比未反应的单体增加粘度104倍或更多。

This suggests classifying a polymerization as bulk whenever a substantial concentration of polymer occurs in the continuous phase. Although this definition encompasses a wide variety of polymerization mechanisms, it leads to unifying concepts in reactor design.

所以在连续相中有高浓度聚合物时聚合反应可定义为本体聚合。虽然这个定义包含了不同的聚合机理，但它统一了反应器设计方面的概念。

The design engineer must confront the polymer in its most intractable form, i. e. , as a high viscosity solution or polymer melt.

设计工程师必须面对聚合物最难处理的形式，也就是，高粘度溶液或聚合物熔体。

The revised definition makes no sharp distinction between bulk and solution polymerizations and thus reflects industrial practice. Several so-called bulk processes for polystyrene and ABS? use 5%~15% solvent as a processing aid and chain-transfer agent.

在修正定义中本体和溶液聚合没有明确的界限，所以能应用于工业中。聚苯乙烯和ABS的本体过程使用5%~15%溶剂作为加工助剂和链转移剂。

Few successful processes have used the very large amounts of solvent needed to avoid high viscosities in the continuous phase, although this approach is sometimes used for laboratory preparations.

尽管有时实验室制备中使用了大量的溶剂避免连续相中的高粘度，但在成功的工艺中很少使用这种方法。

Bulk polymerizations often exhibit a second, discontinuous phase. They frequently exhibit high exothermicity, but this is more characteristic of the reaction mechanism than of bulk polymerization as such.

本体聚合往往出现第二个非连续相。他们常常表现出高放热性，但这一特点更多的是来自于反应机理，而不是本体聚合。

Bulk polymerizations of the free-radical variety are most common, although several commercially important condensation processes satisfy the revised definition of a bulk polymerization.

虽然有一些商业化的缩聚满足本体聚合的修订定义，但自由基聚合最常用于本体聚合。

In all bulk polymerizations, highly viscous polymer solutions and melts are handled. This fact tends to govern the process design and to a lesser extent，the process economics.

在所有的本体聚合中都处理高粘度的聚合物溶液和熔体。(本体聚合过程的高粘现象)支配聚合过程的设计和工艺的经济效益。

Suitably robust equipment has been developed for the various processing steps, including stirred-tank and tubular reactors, flash devolatilizers, extruder reactors, and extruder devolatilizers.

人们研制了耐用的设备用于不同的处理步骤，包括搅拌式和管式反应器中，闪蒸脱挥发，挤出机反应器和挤出机脱挥发器。

Equipment costs are high based on working volume, but the volumetric efficiency of bulk polymerizations is also high. If a polymer can be made in bulk, manufacturing economics will most likely favor this approach. ?

这些设备单位单位体积成本高，但本体聚合的体积效率也很高。如果某一聚合物可以通过本体聚合生产，经济学上该工艺是最适宜的。

It is tempting to suggest that polymer processes will gradually evolve toward bulk.? Recently, the suspension process for impact polystyrene has been supplanted by the bulk process, and the emulsion process for ABS may similarly be replaced.

有一种观点认为聚合物生产将逐渐向本体聚合发展。最近抗冲击的苯乙烯的本体聚合取代了悬浮聚合，ABS本体聚合代替了乳液聚合。

However, the modern gas-phase process for polyethylene appears to represent an opposite trend. It seems that polymerization technology tends to eliminate solvents and suspending fluids other than the monomers themselves.

然而，现代气相法聚乙烯似乎走相反的趋势。看来，相比于使用本体聚合，聚合技术更多倾向于消除溶剂和悬浮液。

When the monomer is a solvent for the polymer, bulk processes as described in this article are chosen. When the monomer is not a solvent, suspension and slurry processes like those for polyethylene and polypropylene are employed. Hence, it is worthwhile avoiding a highly viscous continuous phase, but not at the price of introducing extraneous material. ?

当单体是聚合物的溶剂时，人们选择本文中所描述的本体聚合。当单体不是溶剂时，如聚乙烯和聚丙烯，人们使用悬浮和淤浆过程。这样，可避免高粘性的连续

The synthetic rubber industry, based on the free-radical emulsion process, was created almost overnight during World War II. Styrene-butadiene (GR-S) rubber created at that time gives such good tire treads that natural rubber has never regained this market.

以自由基乳液过程为基础的合成橡胶工业在第二次世界大战期间几乎一夜而成。那时，丁苯橡胶制造的轮胎性能相当优越，使天然橡胶在市场黯然失色。

This mixture is heated with stirring and at 50℃gives conversions of 5%~6% per hour. Polymerization is terminated at 70%~75% conversion by addition of a “short-stop”, such as hydroquinone (approximately 0.1 part), to quench radicals and prevent excessive branching and microgel formation.

混合物加热搅拌，50℃下转化率为每小时5%～6%。在转化率达70%～75%时，通过加入“终止剂”如对苯二酚（大约0.1的重量百分含量）来淬灭自由基并避免过量支化和微凝胶形成，使聚合反应终止。

Unreacted butadiene is removed by flash distillation, and syrene by steam-stripping in a column. After addition of an antioxidant, such as N-phenyl-β-naphthylamine (PBNA) (1.25 parts), the latex is coagulated by the addition of brine, followed by dilute sulfuric acid or aluminum sulfate. The coagulated crumb is washed, dried, and baled for shipment.

未反应的丁二烯通过闪蒸去除，苯乙烯在塔中通过蒸汽去取。乳液在加入抗氧剂如N-甲基-β-萘胺（1.25的重量百分含量）后，加入盐水凝胶，然后加入稀硫酸或硫酸铝。凝胶碎片洗涤、干燥并包装装运。

This procedure is still the basis for emulsion polymerization today. An important improvement is continuous processing illustrated in Fig. 16.1; computer modeling has also been described.

今天这种生产过程仍是乳液聚合反应的基础。如图16.1所示一个重要的改进是连续操作；也采用计算机模型描述。

In the continuous process, styrene, butadiene, soap, initiator, and activator (an auxiliary initiating agent) are pumped continuously from storage tanks through a series of agitated reactors at such a rate that the desired degree of conversion is reached at the last reactor.

在连续操作中，苯乙烯、丁二烯、肥皂、引发剂和活化剂（一种助引发剂）用泵从储罐通过一系列的混合反应器，泵送流率根据末釜的转化率控制。Shortstop is added, the latex warmed with steam, and the unreacted butadiene flashed off. Excess styrene is steam-stripped, and the latex finished as shown in Fig.

16.1.

加入终止剂，乳液用蒸气加热，用闪蒸去除未反应的丁二烯。剩余的苯乙烯用蒸气去除，如图16.1表示加工工艺。

SBR prepared from the original GR-S recipe is often called hot rubber; cold rubber is made at 5℃by using a more active initiator system. Typical recipes are given in Table 16.1. At 5℃,60% conversion to polymer occurs in 12~15h.

由常规丁苯制法制备的丁苯胶常称作热胶；冷胶通过使用一种更高活性的引发体系在5℃制成。常用配方在表16.1中给出。在5℃下，聚合物12～15 h的转化率为60%。

Cold SBR tire treads are superior to those of hot SBR. Polymers with abnormally high molecular weight (and consequently too tough to process by ordinary factory equipment) can be processed after the addition of up to 50 parts of petroleum-base oils per hundred parts of rubber (phr).

冷丁苯橡胶轮胎性能优于热丁苯胶。对于非常高分子量的聚合物，由于采用常规的工厂设备由于太粘稠而难以加工，需要在每一百份的橡胶中加入最高50份的石油基的油后才能够加工。

These oil extenders make the rubbers more processible at lower cost and with little sacrifice in properties; they are usually emulsified and blended with the latex before coagulation.

这些油添加剂使橡胶更易加工、成本更低和而基本不降低性能；他们在凝胶之前通常乳化并与胶乳混合。

Recent trends have been toward products designed for specific uses. The color of SBR, which is important in many nontire uses, has been improved by the use of lighter-colored soaps, shortstops, antioxidants, and extending oils.

最新的趋势是设计特殊用途的产品。由于丁苯橡胶的颜色对许多非轮胎的使用十分重要，因此通过使用浅色的乳化剂、终止剂、抗氧剂和扩展油加以改进其颜色。For example, dithiocarbamates are substituted for hydroquinone as shortstop; the latter is used on hot SBR where dark color is not objectionable. A shortstop such as sodium dimethyldithiocarbamate is more effective in terminating radicals and destroying peroxides at the lower temperatures employed for the cold rubbers.

例如，使用二硫代氨基甲酸盐替代对苯二酚作为终止剂；后者用于深颜色的热丁苯橡胶。在低温冷胶的制备中，二甲基二硫代氨基甲酸钠等终止剂对终止自由基和破坏过氧化物更有效。

Free-radical dissociative initiators that function by dissociation of a molecule or ion into two radical species are normally limited to inorganic persulfates in the case of butadiene polymerization.

在丁二烯聚合反应中，自由基分解类引发剂由分子或离子分解产生两个自由基，它们通常局限于过硫酸盐。

The other important class of free-radical initiators, redox systems, contain two or more components that react to produce free radicals. Dodecyl mercaptan added to control molecular weight also appears to aid free-radical formation by reaction with persulfate.

氧化还原体系是另一种重要的自由基引发剂，它含有通过反应产生自由基的两种或多种组分。用来控制分子量的十二烷基硫醇与过硫酸盐反应看上去也有助于自由基的形成。

The commercial importance of such chain-transfer agents or modifiers cannot be overemphasized. Without molecular weight control the rubbers would be too tough to process.

这种链转移剂或调节剂具有极其重要的商业价值。不控制分子量橡胶将过于粘稠以致难以加工。

Polymer processing , in its most general context , involves the transformation of a solid ( sometimes liquid ) polymeric resin , which is in a random form (e. g. powder, pellets , beads ), to a solid plastics product of specified shape , dimensions , and properties.

在其最一般的情况下，聚合物加工涉及固体（有时侯是液体）聚合物树脂的转变。树脂从一种不规则的形式（例如粉末、颗粒、珠子）转化成一种具有特定形状、尺寸和性能的固体塑料产品。

This is achieved by means of a transformation process: extrusion, molding, calendering , coating, thermoforming , etc. The process, in order to achieve the above objective, usually involves the following operations: solid transport , compression, heating, melting, mixing, shaping, cooling, solidification, and finishing .

这借助于转换加工：挤出、模塑、压延、涂敷、热成型等。为了获得上述目的，加工通常涉及下述操作：固体输送、压缩、加热、混合、成型、冷却、固化并完成。

Obviously, these operations do not necessarily occur in sequence, and many of them take place simultaneously.

显然，这些操作不必按序发生，他们中许多可以同时发生。

Shaping is required in order to impart to the material the desired geometry and dimensions. It involves combinations of viscoelastic deformations and heat transfer, which are generally associated with solidification of the product from the melt.

成型是为了给予材料所需要的几何形状和尺寸。成型过程涉及粘弹形变和热传递，这种粘弹形变和热传递是和产品从熔体的固化（或冷却）相联系的。 Shaping includes : (1) two-dimensional operations , e.g. dieforming, calendering and coating , and (2) three-dimensional molding and forming operations.

成型包括：（1）二维操作，例如，口模成型、压延和涂敷，（2

）三维的模塑和成型操作。

Two-dimensional processes are either of the continuous , steady state type )e.g. film and sheet extrusion , wire coating , paper and sheet coating ,calendering ,fiber spinning , pipe and profile extrusion , etc. ) or intermittent as in the case of extrusions associated with intermittent extrusion blow moulding.

二维的操作要么是连续的固定形式。例如薄膜和板材挤出，电线涂布，纸和平面涂布，压延，纤维旋涂，管材和型材挤出等等。）要么是间歇式的，在挤出的情况下伴有间歇挤出吹塑。

Generally, moulding operations are intermittent, and, thus, they tend to involve unsteady state conditions. Thermoforming, vacuum forming, and similar processes may be considered as secondary shaping operations, since they usually involve the reshaping of an already shaped form. In some cases, like blow molding, the process involve primary shaping (parison formation) and secondary shaping (parison inflation ).

通常，模塑操作是间歇的，然而同时倾向于非固定条件。因为热成型，真空成型和类似的加工通常包括已成型形状的再次成型，它们可以认为是二次成型操作。在某些情况下像吹模，加工包括首次成型（型胚成型）和二次成型（型胚膨胀）。

Shaping operations involve simultaneous or staggered fluid flow and heat transfer. In two-dimensional processes, solidification usually follows the shaping process, whereas solidification and shaping tend to take place simultaneously inside the mold in three dimensional processes.

成型操作包括同时或交叉的液体流动和热传递。在二维加工中，固化（或冷却）在成型加工以后，反之在三维加工的模塑中固化 （或冷却）和成型倾向于同时发生。

Flow regimes, depending on the nature of the material, the equipment, and the processing conditions, usually involve combinations of shear, extensional, and squeezing flows in conjunction with enclosed (contained) or free surface flows.

根据材料的性质、设备和加工条件，流动形式通常包含 剪切、拉伸。根据流动面为包含表面或自由表面 ，又包含挤压流动。

The thermo-mechanical history experienced by the polymer during flow and solidification results in the development of microstructure (morphology, crystallinity, and orientation distributions) in the manufactured article.

聚合物热机械工艺经历流动和固化（或冷却）过程，其导致了制造产品微结构（形态学、结晶学和取向分布）的发展。

The ultimate properties of the article are closely related to the microstructure. Therefore, the control of the process and product quality must be based on an understanding of the interactions between resin properties, equipment design, operating conditions, thermo-mechanical history, microstructure, and ultimate product properties.

最终产品的性能与微结构紧密相关。因此，加工和产品质量的控制必须基于树脂性能、设备设计、操作条件、热机械过程、微结构和最终产品性能之间相互作用的理解。

Mathematical modeling and computer simulation have been employed to obtain an understanding of these interactions.

数学模型和计算机模拟被同时用于获得这些相互作用的理解。

Such an approach has gained more importance in view of the expanding utilization of computer aided design/computer assisted manufacturing/computer aided engineering (CAD/CAM/CAE) systems in conjunction with plastics processing.

广泛利用计算机辅助设计/计算机辅助制造/计算机辅助工程（CD/CAM/CAE ）系统用于塑料加工，使得诸如这种方法重要性大为提高。

The following discussion will highlight some of the basic concepts involved in plastics shaping operations. It will emphasize recent developments relating to the analysis and simulation of some important commercial processes, with due consideration to elucidation of both thermo-mechanical history and microstructure development. 下面的讨论将重点放在包括塑料成型操作一些基本概念上。将着重介绍最近一些重要商品加工的分析和模拟的进展，并阐明热机械过程和微结构发展。 More extensive reviews of the subject can be found in standard references on the topic (1~6).

在参考文献（1～6）中能够找到本主题更广泛的综述。

As mentioned above, shaping operations involve combinations of fluid flow and heat transfer, with phase change, of a visco-elastic polymer melt.

如上面提到的，成型操作包括液体流动和热传递，还包括粘弹性聚合物熔体的相态变化。

Both steady and unsteady state processes are encountered. A scientific analysis of operations of this type requires solving the relevant equations of continuity, motion, and energy (i.e. conservation equations).

稳定和非稳定状态加工同时存在。对于这种操作的科学分析需要解决相关连续性、运动和能量平衡（即守恒方程）。

Optical characteristics are determined by structure within the polymer which has dimensions approximately equal to the wavelength of visible light, and by defect on surface.

The mechanical properties of polymers are of interest in all applications where polymers are used as structural materials. Mechanical behavior involves the deformation of a material under the influence of applied forces.

聚合物的力学性能在聚合物作为结构材料的应用中广为关注。机械行为包括材料外力影响下材料的形变。

The most important and most characteristic mechanical properties are called moduli. A modulus is the ratio between the applied stress and the corresponding deformation.

最重要和最具特征的机械性能被称为模量。模量是施加应力和相应形变的比例。

The reciprocals of the moduli are called compliances. The nature of the modulus depends on the na-ture of the deformation.

模量的倒数称为柔量。模量性质取决于形变性质。

The three most important elementary modes of deformation and the moduli(and compliances) derived from them are given in Table 22. 1，where the definitions of the elastic parameters are also given.

表22 1给出了三种最重要的基本变形方式和由这些变形推导得到的模量(或柔量)．表中也给出了弹性指数的定义。

Other very important, but more complicated, deformations are bending and torsion. From the bending or flexural deformation the tensile modulus can be derived. The torsion is determined by the rigidity.

其他非常重要，但更为复杂的是弯曲形变和扭转形变。拉伸模量可从弯曲或弯曲形变得出。扭转形变是由刚性决定的。

Cross-linked elastomers are a special case. Due to the cross-links this polymer class shows hardly any flow behavior.

交联弹性体是一种特殊情况。由于交联这类聚合物几乎没有任何流动行为。

The kinetic theory of rubber elasticity was developed by Kuhn , Guth, James, Mark, Flory, Gee and Treloar. It leads, for Young's modulus at low strains, to the following equation s

橡胶弹性动力学理论是由库恩，杰姆斯，马克，古思，弗洛里，吉和特雷洛尔提出的。这个理论导出了低应变杨氏模量的下列方程：

The paragraphs above dealt with purely elastic deformations, i. e. deformations in which the strain was assumed to be a time-independent function of the stress. In reality, materials are never purely elastic: under certain circumstances they have nonelastic properties.

以上段落的纯弹性变形，即形变中应变为应力的函数，和时间无关。现实中，材料不是纯弹性：在某些情况下他们有非弹性性能。

This is especially true of polymers, which may show nonelastic deformation under circumstances in which metals may be regarded as purely elastic.

这对于聚合物来说尤其如此．在金属被认为纯弹性的情况下聚合物可能表现出非弹性变形。

It is customary to use the expression viscoelastic deformations that are not purely elastic.

通常使用粘弹性变形的表达式表示非纯弹性。

Literally the term viscoelastic means the combinations of viscous and elastic properties. As the stress-strain relationship in viscous deformations is time-dependent, viscoelastic phenomena always involve the change of properties with time.

粘弹性是指粘性和弹性性能的结合。由于粘性变形的应力应变关系的时间依赖性，粘弹现象的性能总是随着时间而变化。

Measurement of the response in deformation of a viscoelastic material to periodic forces, for instance during forced vjbration, shows that stress and strain are not in phase; the strain lags behind the stress by a phase angle δ, the loss angle.

在变形的粘弹性材料测量周期性外力的反应，例如强迫振动，表明应力和应变不同相；应变滞后于应力的相位角δ称为损耗角。

So the moduli of the materials，the complex moduli, include the storage moduli which determine the amount of recoverable energy stored as elastic energy, and the loss moduli which determine the dissipation of energy as heat when the material is deformed.

因此，材料的模量即复合模量包括储存模量和损失模量，其中储存模量决定了以弹性能量储存的可恢复能量的多少，损失模量决定了材料变形时以热量形式散失