语言学
2011年0931/32语言学复习提纲 2011-12-11 13:10:42| 分类： 默认分类 | 标签： |字号大
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1. what is language?
General linguistics: the study of lg as a whole.
Phonetics: the study of sound used in languages.
Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.
Semantics: study of the meaning of language items.
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use.
Sociolinguistics: the study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.
Psycholinguistics: the study of language from the aspect of psychology.
The study of human’s mental process in using language.
2.
Prescriptive: ( SS’ work: )to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language.( traditional grammar: only study classic written work. )
Descriptive: to describe and analyze the language people actually use.( in modern linguistics. Should be scientific and objective.
3. Langue( F.de Saussure): the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community. A set of conventions and rules.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use. The concrete use of the rules. Varies from person to person.
( Swiss linguist F. de Saussure )
4. ( American linguist N. Chomsky )
competence: ( Noam Chomsky. )the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. performance : the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
1. 5. design features of language: the basic differences between humans and animals
a) arbitrariness: there is no direct relation between sounds/written form and meaning.
b) productivity（创造性creativity）: produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences. Animals’ signals and use of the signals are limited.
c) Duality(双重性，层级性): a system of two levels, the basic level, meaningless sounds; higher level, meaningful units, such as words, sentences and so on.
d) Displacement（不受时空限制性）: used to express the object not immediately available, or a matter in the past or future. It is free from barriers of time or place. Animals can only use their signals to respond to current affair. This enable human beings to have more imaginative power than animals.
e) cultural transmission: language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to another through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. They need not learn. They are born with the ability to make the calls or signals.
4. Suprasegmental features: (超切分特征) stress tone intonation juncture/paus
1. morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning
The XP rule:
XP (specifier) X (complement)
coordination rule（并列规则）:
X X* Con X
(x consists of one of more categories at any level, a conjunction and the other category.)
The S rule: S NP VP
Inversion (倒置)： Move Infl to the left of the subject NP
(Auxiliary movement) Move Infl to C
(head movement): move Infl to the position of head (C) in CP.
S (Infl P )
Infl (head)
NP (Spec) VP (Comp)
NP
V Det N
She found the book.
Do insertion： Insert interrogative(表疑问的) do into an empty Infl position.
Wh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.
Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.
1) Naming theory
2) Conceptualism There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to( between language and the real world); they are related through the mediation of concepts of the mind.
4) Behaviorism The meaning of a language form is “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. (Bloomfield)
Predication analysis the abstraction(抽象) of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s)( the nominal element(s)) and predicate.
1. sense relations between sentences: （truth conditions ）
X: He is a student. Y: He studies in a school.
X: I am her boyfriend. Y She is my girlfriend.
( X is synonymous with Y: X 与Y同义)
if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.
X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor(单身汉).
（ X is inconsistent with Y: 不一致/矛盾）
If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.
X: He likes his teacher very much.. Y: He has a teacher.
( X presupposes Y. Y is a prerequisite of X : Y 是X的先决条件。)
If X is true, Y must be true; if X is false, Y is still true.
X: He has been to New York. Y: He has been to USA.
( X entails Y. Y is an entailment of X: Y包含X)
If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.
The bachelor is married to a widow.
X is a contradiction: (自相矛盾)
The table has bad intentions
X is semantically anomalous(语义反常).
Pragmatics
It is the study of intended speaker meaning. It differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context
Sentence-meaning / utterance-meaning
Sentence-meaning refers to the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition
Utterance-meaning is context dependent. It is generally regarded as the product of sentence-meaning and context./ the speaker’s intentions
Speech act theory (Austin’s mo
del )
Locutionary act (言内行为/表述性行为)
The basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
Illocutionary actIt is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.
Perlocutionary act
Speech act classification
a. representatives (阐述类)
b. directives ( 指令类)
c. commissives ( 承诺类)
d. expressives ( 表达类)
e. declarations ( 宣告类)
Cooperative Principle ( Grice Principle).
e. The maxim of quantity: ( 量的准则) make your contribution as informative as required, not more or less than is required.
The maxim of quality（质的准则）: Do not say what you believe to be false, or what you are not quite sure of. Don’t lie, don’t boast, otherwise you will be a failure in public( But Chinese people seem to be more tolerant about lies and boasting.
The maxim of relation. ( 关联准则) Be relevant. Keep to the topic. ( but for different culture, we have different standards.
f. The maxim of manner ( 方式准则): Be brief, orderly; avoid obscurity（含糊）, and ambiguity（歧异）.
Politeness principle (by Leech)
Leech: CP explains how conversational implicature come into being. But it can’t explain why people flout CP.
1.Tact maxim; 2. generosity maxim;
3. approbation maxim; 4. modesty maxim;
5. agreement maxim; 6. sympathy maxim
The critical period hypothesis
It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.
language processing
bottom-up processing. 自下而上的处理
Sounds phonemes words sentences
up-down processing We make hypothesis all the time while reading or listening. And we correct our hypothesis when we hear new words. We call this up-down processing.
Processing model( Gagne, Carroll)
Context(stimuli) sensory receiver
sensory memory(instant memory)
(about 1 second.)
short-term memory(working memory)(30s-1 minutes)
long-term memory(permanent memory) by repetition and practice and application .
SLA: second language acquisition
?The systematic study of how one acquire a second language subsequent to his native language ( mother tongue).
CA: Contrastive analysis.
CA compares the forms and meanings of the first language and target language to predict difficulties. Difference is difficulty
EA(Error analysis)
Mistakes and Errors
?Mistakes: caused by
failure of performance, wrong forms learners produce, which are self-corrigible(可自己改正的). (can be corrected by learners themselves.)
?Errors: caused by failure of competence, unintentionally wrong forms learners produce, which are not self-corrigible
Interlanguage: (中介语)
learners’ independent system of the target language, it is the continuum(连续体) from the native language to the target language.
Aims: to find out some developmental sequence of learners’ interlanguage.
Input Hypothesis( 输入假设): (Krashen)
Learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”( 可理解性输入) : “ i + 1 ”( i = learners current stage/level of knowledge; i + 1 = next stage. )
individual differences( 个体差别)
?language aptitude（语言天赋/ 性向）:
?motivation. ?instrumental motivation:工具性动机 learning for external goals, such as passing exams, financial rewards, better jobs and so on.
?Integrative motivation: 综合性/ 整体性动机 the drive that learning is to identify with the target culture. Immigrants have to learn English in order to become a member of the community.
?Resultative motivation 结果性动机: learning for external purposes.
?Intrinsic motivation 内部动机: for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.
?Mixed motivation: 混合性动机
learning strategies
?Metacognitive strategies: 元认知策略 the techniques in planning, monitoring, evaluating and adjusting one’s learning.
?Affect/ social strategies: 情感/社会策略 the techniques in interacting or communicating with others to get information and help.