2011年6月英语四级(CET4)真题
English Grammar
英语语法
Overview 概述
?1. The location of grammar in the
?language
?Semantic System →Grammar →Phonetic System/
?Writing System
?语义系统→语法→语音系统/文字系统
?2. Hierarchy (层次性)
?1)Five Grammatical ranks
?morpheme (词素)
?Word
?phrase
?clause
?sentence
?2) Three Text Ranks：
?sentence (句子)
?sentence group (语段或句群)
?Text (语篇)
Grammatical Hierarchy
?1. Morphemes
?The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaning element of speech. Morpheme fall into two categories:
?
?free morphemes
? e.g. boy girl desk chair
?
?bound morphemes
?1) affix (derivational affix and inflectional affix)
? a. derivational affix派生词缀(prefix and suffix)
? e.g. postwar movement unlucky
? b. inflectional affix (屈折词缀)
?名词复数标记–s / -es
?名词属格标记–?s
?第三人称动词单数现在时标记–s / -es
?动词过去时标记-ed
?动词–ed分词和–ing分词标记-ed，–ing
?2) combining forms 组合形式
? e.g.
?archbishop miniskirt biology (bio+logy)
Words
?The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:
?1. Classification in terms of word-formation
?(three main groups) (see P3)
?simple words e.g. make at by hand foot
?derivatives
? e.g. unfair nonsmoker unhappy
?compounds
? e.g. deadline handbook mass-produce
?2. Classification in terms of grammatical function
?(two main groups) (P5)
?1) closed class
?preposition
?pronoun
?determiner
?conjunction
?auxiliary
?
?2) open class
?noun
?adjective
?adverb
?main verb 主动词
?cardinal numeral 基数词
?ordinal numeral 序数词
?此外
?interjection感叹词(介乎封闭与开放之间)
Phrases 词组(P6)
?The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.
?E.g. noun phrase (a phrase with a noun as its head)
?The general pattern of a noun phrase is:
?(determiner +) (premodifier +) noun (postmodifier)
? e.g.
?all the college students
?his new book on phonology
Rread the rest by students (P6)
Open Class
?1. noun (P39)
?Classification of Nouns
?1) classified according to word formation (3):
?simple, compound and derivative nouns
?↓↓↓
? e.g. man armchair arrangement
?2) classified according to lexical meaning (2):
?common and proper nouns
?↓↓
? e.g. Boy, family rice; Anderson, China,
?3) Classified according to grammatical form (2):
?countable and uncountable nouns
?See the following details
?Note:
?可数名词与不可数名词的划分关系到名词与限定词的搭配，也关系到主语和谓语动词的一致问题。
?列表如下：
?个体名词
?可数名词
?集体名词
?普通名词
?物质名词
?不可数名词
?抽象名词
?专有名词
?2. Number Forms of Nouns (名词的数) P42
?1) Regular and irregular plural
? a. The regular plural is formed by adding –s or
?-es to the base
? e.g. days houses tomatoes
? b. The irregular plural is formed by changing the
?internal vowel or by changing the ending of
?the noun e.g.
?tooth- teeth man- men
?child- children ox- oxen
?C. Irregular plurals also include some words of
?foreign origin (from Greek, Latin or French).
? e.g.
?basis- bases
?criterion- criteria
?stratum- strata
?alumnus(男校友) alumni
?alumna (女校友) alumnae
?datum data
?see notes P44 ?agendum agenda
?d. Some borrowed words have two plural forms:
?foreign plural English form
?medium media mediums
?index indices indexes
?formula formulae formulas
?curriculum curricula curriculums
?e. For some nouns, their singular and plural number
?share the same form,
? e.g.
? a deer ten deer
?one fish several fish
? a Japanese a group of Japanese
?an aircraft a hundred aircraft
?此外还包括：barracks(兵营), headquarters,
?means, works(工厂), series species
?f. We know that Penny(便士) has two plural forms:
?pence
?penny
?pennies
?What is the difference?
?pence:通常与基数词相结合构成复合词，如sixpence,
?tenpence, 表示一个钱数。
?pennies: 表示若干个一便士的硬币。
? e.g. If the price of a reel of cotton is tenpence,
?you hand over four pennies for it.
?2) Number forms of the collective, material, abstract
?and proper noun
? a. Number forms of the collective
?▼Some collective nouns are countable, some are
?not. If we want to count the number of the
?uncountable collective noun, we will have to
?use a kind of individual noun related
?semantically to the collective.
? e.g. a piece of furniture, two articles of
?equipment.
?▼There is also a kind of collective noun which can
?be used either in the singular or in the plural
?sense. When viewed as a single unit, the
?collective is singular. When the noun is used to
?refer to the individuals that form the collective, It
?is plural in meaning. These include:
?audience, committee, class(班级), crew(机组人员),
?family, government, public(公众)
?e.g. The anti-crime committee ____(are/is) to
?make its report tomorrow.
?is (as a single unit)
?The city council ____(is/are) meeting to set its
?agenda.
?is (as a single unit) ?That herd of cows and calves(小牛)_______
?(is/are) moving toward the sheds by twos and
?threes.
?are (refer to the individuals )
?That herd of cows and calves(小牛)____ (is/are)
?the healthiest the farm has had in some time.
?is (as a single unit)
?▼some collective nouns are used only in plural form:
? e.g.
?police, people, cattle, militia, poultry(家禽),
?vermin(害虫)
? a. Domestic cattle provide us with milk and beef.
? b. such vermin as bugs and rats are hard to get
?rid of.
?▼Some collective nouns are uncountable.
? e.g.
?foliage(叶子), machinary, equipment, furniture,
?merchandise(商品)
?The merchandise has arrived undamaged.
?All the machinery in the factory is made in China.
?b. Number forms of the material noun
?＊Material nouns are generally uncountable and
?have no plural forms. But there are some items
?that can be used either uncountably or countably.
?When used to mean the material itself, they are
?uncountable
?
?＊But when used in other senses, for example, two
?coffees in the sense of “two cupfuls of coffee”,
?they are countable.
?＊There are also material nouns that can take plural
?endings, for example, sands/waters (large
?expanse of sand or water); foods/fruits (a variety
?of food or fruit). These nouns, though ending in –s,
?remain uncountable.
?c. Number forms of the abstract noun
?＊Abstract nouns are mostly uncountable.
? e.g.
?Honesty is the best policy.
?＊But there are a few abstract nouns that are
?countable.
? e.g. victory (a victory, two victories)
?conference (a conference, several conferences)
?＊There are also abstract nouns that have plural
?endings but which are uncountable.
? e.g. My sympathies are with you. √
?He is a man of several sympathies. ×
?d. Number forms of proper noun
?Proper nouns are unique in reference and therefore have no plural forms, except for such proper names as the United states, the Philippines, the Netherlands, etc which are themselves plural in form. When a proper noun takes a plural ending, it takes on some charateristics of a common noun,
? e.g.
?Have you invited the Browns?
?There are two Miss Smiths
Genitive Noun 名词属格
?Case(格) is a grammatical category. It denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.
?1. Formation of genitive nouns
? a. The genitive is formed in writing by adding?s to
?singular nouns and to those plural nouns that do
?not end in –s,
? e.g. my mother?s arrival, women?s clothes
?
?b. plural nouns ending in –s take an apostrophe as
?genitive marker,
? e.g. The girls? dormitory, a teachers? college
?c. In compound nouns(复合词) or a postmodified
?noun phrase, the genitive ending is added to the
?end of the compound or to the end of the noun
?phrase,
?e.g. my mother-in-law?s death, an hour and a half?s
?talk, somebody else?s opinion, the University of
?Minnesota?s president
?d) In coordinate nouns(并列名词), the genitive
?ending is added to each of the coordinate
?elements when denoting respective possession,
?and only to the last coordinate element when
?denoting common possession.
? e.g. Mary?s and Bob?s books
?Mary and Bob?s books
?e. In the construction of “noun phrase + appositive”,
?the genitive ending is added to the end of the
?appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase
?and to appositive,
? e.g. his schoolmate Johnson?s
?Basel the bookseller?s
?Basel?s, the bookseller?s
?
?f. ＊In personal names ending in sibilant(咝音) /z/,
?the genetive ending can either be …s or an
?apostrophe only,
? e.g. Dickens?/Dickens?s novels
?Jones?/Jones?s poems
?. ＊But it can only be …s when personal names end in
?other siblilant sounds,
? e.g. Marx?s doctrine
?Ross?s discoveries
?
?2. Meanings of genitive nouns
?The genitive is chiefly used to denote “possession”, and therefore, is traditionally called “possessive case”. But genitive meanings a re by no means restricted to possession.
?1) Possessive genitive 所有关系
? e.g. Mr Brown?s suitcase; China?s territory
?2) subjective genitive主谓关系
e.g. The Prime Minister?s arrival
David?s quick recovery
?3) Objective genitive动宾关系
? e.g. The enemy?s defeat brought the war to the
?end.
?The criminal?s punishment will be ten years ?in prison.
?4) Genitive of origin表示来源
? e.g. I haven?t received my sister?s letter yet.
?Newton?s law was developed in the 17th
?century.
?5) Descriptive genitive表示类别
? e.g. a winter?s day (=a day in winter)
?men?s shoes (=shoes for men)
?6) Gevitive of time, distance, measure, value, etc
?表示时间，度量，价值等
? e.g. an hour?s work
?two hours? delay
?300 kil ometres? distance
?one dollar?s worth of meat
?five dollars? worth of stamps
?3. Genitive nouns and of-phrases
?＊Genitive nouns are sometimes interchangeable
?with of-phrases in the following ways:
?1) Possessive genitive 所有关系
?2) subjective genitive主谓关系
?3) Objective genitive动宾关系
?4) Genitive of origin表示来源
?
e.g. China?s foreign policy = the foreign policy of China
?＊But in some cases, we can only use genitive nouns
?instead of of-phrases.
? e.g. 1) When genitive nouns are used to express
?the relationship of the category.
?儿童画报：children?s pictorial
?(not pictorial of children)
?男士服装：men?s clothing
?(not clothing of men)
?博士学位：a doctor?s degree
?(not a degree of doctor)
?
?2) Only genitive nouns are used in some idioms.
? e.g. at one?s wits? end(智穷力竭)
? a b ird?s-eye view (鸟瞰)
? a wolf in sheep?s clothing
?＊Only of-phrases are used when post-modifiers are
?long.
? e.g. the opinion of the chairman appointed a
?month ago
?the suggestions of those present at the
?meeting
?＊Only of-phrases are used if the noun phrases
?consist of “the + adjective” or the of-phrase
?expresses an appositive relationship.
? e.g. the income of the rich
?the struggle of the exploited(被剥削者)
?the city of Rome
?the town of Bremen(不来梅镇)
?4. Independent genitive and Double genitive
?A genitive noun can sometimes be used
?independently, that is, without a following noun.
?This use of the genitive may be termed as the
?independent genitive.
? e.g. Mary?s is the largest house.
?I am going to dine at the Johnsons?(家)
?Joe lives near St. Paul?s(教堂)
?He was educated at Merchant Taylor?s(学校)
?Pickled vegetables are available at the
?grocer…s (店铺)
?An independent genitive can sometimes be used as prepositional complementation介词补足成分(traditionally known as prepositional object). The prepositional phrase (usually an of-phrase) that takes an independent genitive as complementation is called double genitive.
?e.g. ＊He is a friend of my father?s (=he is one of my
?father?s friends).
?＊This is a painting of my roommate?s
?see details (P57)
动词
Classification of V erbs
?1 Main verbs (notional verb实义动词) 主动词
?＊simple verb phrase:
?A verb phrase which consists of a main verb only.
? e.g. He buys lemonnade every time he goes
?shopping.
?＊complex verb phrase
?A verb phrase may also take the form of a main
?verb preceded by one or more aucxiliaries
? e.g. She is visiting Copenhagen.
?Y ou should have read the book.
?2. auxiliaries助动词
?(three categories)
?They help main verbs to express various
?grammatical and modal meanings
?
? a. primary auxiliaries 基本助动词
?(only three) be, do, have
?With no lexical meanings, these auxiliaries have
?only grammatical functions/meanings.
?
b. modal auxiliaries 情态助动词
?They express modal meanings (possibility,
?permission, obligation, etc). Their past forms do
?not necessarily express past time.
?can could ?may might
?will would ?shall should ?must ------
?need ------
?dare dared
?----- ought to
?----- used to.
c. semi-auxiliaries
?have to, seem to, be about to, be able to,… …
?(see the details (P210)
?＊They constitute a category of verbs between
?auxiliaries proper and main verbs. (兼有主动词和
?助动词特征的语法结构)
?＊They can help main verb to form the complex
?verb phrase and express the modal meaning.
? e.g. I have to buy a new car.
?＊On the other hand they can, when preceded by
?other auxiliaries, function as main verb.
? e.g. I don?t have to buy a new car.
?He didn?t seem to love her.
?
?Compare:
?Here we examine, in terms of semantics, modality
?(情态) and the English modals(情态动词)
?incorporating some related semi-auxiliaries.
?1) Expr essing “ability and possibility”
?The modals used in these senses are “can, could,
?may, might and be able to”.
?a) can, could, be able to
?“Can and be able to” are synonymous and are interchangeable in many cases. But to talk about future abil ity, the normal form to use is “will/shall be able to”, though can is also possible in specific contexts.
?To talk about past ability, we can use could and was/were able to. In positive statements, could only refers to some general ability in the pas t (“she could play the piano when she was six”). If we want to denote a single instance of past ability, we will have
?to use “was/were able to” (“He was able to swim halfway before he collapsed”). This contrast is neutralized in negative statements.(在否定句中无此限制)
? e.g.
?He got so drunk that he couldn?t /wasn?t able to
?find the door.
?b) To talk about “possibility”, we can use may, might,
?can and could. Used in this sense, may and might
?are interchangeable and suggest no difference in
?time reference; only the use of might conveys
?greater uncertainty in tone. It should be noted
?that may in the sense of “possibility” occurs only in
?statements, whereas in question can is used
?instead.
? e.g. Where can he be?
?He may be in the office.
?Compare:
? a. He may …not go tomorrow
? b. He …may not go tomorrow
?“May not” in written form may mean very different
?things: “impossibility” or “prohibition”. In the sense
?of “impossibility”, stress normally falls on “may”; in
?denoting “prohibition”, stress falls on “not”. (Thus in
?written language, “can?t” is often preferable to “may
?not” in the sense of “impossibility”)
?“Can and Could” in the sense of “possibility” are
?interchangeable with no difference in time reference.
?Only the use of could suggests greater uncertainty
?and, therefore, sounds more polite. But the use of
?can is usually restricted to negative statement and
?questions, while no such restriction exists with the
?use of could.
?Not the differ ence between the “possibility” expressed by can and that by may. In positive statement, can usually express “theoretical possibility”, while may express “factual possibility.
? e.g. 1) Mr Reed is in poor health. He can be ill at
?any time.
?2) Mr Reed looks pale today. He may be ill.
?This contrast, however, is neutralized in negative statements and questions.
?In statements, “may/might have + -ed” is commonly used to speculate about past events. Here , too, the use of “might” suggests n o difference in time reference; it only implies greater uncertainty about what was possible in the past. Speculations about past events can also be expressed by “can/could have + -ed”, but can have + -ed” only appears in negative statements and questions.
? e.g. She can?t / could have missed the train.
?Note that “might/could have + -ed” is sometimes used to talk about an unrealized possibility in the past, about something that was possible but did not happen.
? e.g. Y ou might have finished the work last week,
?but you didn?t.
?2) Permission and prohibition 许可与不许可
?
?a) To ask for permission, we can use “can, could,
?can, might. Compared with can/could,
?“may/might” sounds more formal; compared
?with can/may, the past forms sound more
?polite, implying no difference in time reference.
?In colloquial English, can is very frequently
?used to ask for permission.
? e.g. Can I smoke in here?
?To give permission, we normally use can and may rather than could or might.
? e.g. Could I use your phone?
?Y es, of course you can.
?To refuse to give permission, we can use may not (with stress on not) or cannot.
? e.g.
?Can I go out for moment? No, you can?t.
?May I use your car for a few days? No, you may not.
?Note: In impersonal statements(非人说话时), “may not” can also be used to indicate what is not permitted by rules or regulations.
? e.g. Borrowers may not take out of the library more
?than two books at a time.
?Note that the past form of may not (in the sense of refusal to give permission) is not “might not”. The notion of refusing to give permission in the past is usually expressed by other forms.
? e.g. He was not allowed to go.
?I don?t permit him to go.
?3) Obligation and necessity 义务与必然
?a) To talk about “obligation”, we can use should,
?ought to and must. Used in this sense, these
?three modals vary slightly in tone (口气).
?“should and ought to” are used to advise or
?urge(劝说或敦促). These two modals are
?interchangeable in most cases. There is,
?however, a very slight difference: should is
?used when we give our own subjective opinion; ought to has a rather more objective force. Consequently, “should”, rather than “ought to”, is used to give strong advice.
? e.g. Y ou should do what your teachers tell you to.
?To talk about things which did not happen though they were supposed to, we can use “should/ought to have + -ed”.
? e.g. Y ou should/ought to have asked my permission
?first.
?“Must” is even stronger than “should”. Used in the sense of “obligation”, must usually implies that the speaker is the person in authority, the one who gives the orders, binding both on the listener and o the speaker himself(对人对己都适用).
? e.g. Y ou must be back by ten o?clock.
?I really must stop smoking.
?
?“Obligation” with future time reference is normally expressed by “will/shall have to”.
? e.g. We?ll have to do it again.
?As must has not a past form, “obligation” with past time reference is usually expressed by “had to”, though must can also be used to denote an obligation in the past.
? e.g. I had to leave at 6:30 yesterday.
?I told him that he must mind his own business.
?Most has two negative forms:
?must not/mustn?t
?need not/needn?t
?“Must not” denotes prohibition. Its semi-auxiliary is “be not to”.
? e.g. Y ou mustn?t talk like that
?(=Y ou are not to talk like that.)
?不许你如此讲话
?“Need not” denotes absence of obligation or necessity
?(不必). Alternative forms of needn?t (与needn?t相当
?的动词形式) are “don?t need to”, “don?t have to”,
?and “haven?t got to”.
?Must you leave so soon?
?No, I _____(mustn?t/ needn?t).
?needn?t
?Both “must” and “have to” can be used to denote “obligation”, but the use of must often implies that the obligation is imposed by the speaker, while “have to” usually implies that the obligation comes from objective circumstances.
?Compare: He must say it in English.
?(I want him to do so.)
?He has to say it in English.
?(because he doesn?t know Chinese)
?3. Transitive V erbs, intransitive verbs and linking
?verbs
?Main verbs can be divided into Transitive V erbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs according to whether or not they must be followed by obligatory and whhat kind of elements that must follow.
?a. transitive verbs
?＊They must be followed by an object.
? e.g. John is playing cricket.
?＊Some can be followed by two objects, ie,
?indirect/direct object.
? e.g. The new lamp gave us more light.
?＊Some can bne followed by an object and an
?object complement.
? e.g. The jury found the defender not guilty.
?＊Some can be followed by an object and obligatory
?adverbial.
? e.g. I put the book on the shelf.
?b. intransitive verbs
?They do not require an object.
? e.g. The president is speaking.
?c. Linking verbs
?They are followed by a subject complement(主语
?补语)
? e.g. The capita of the USA was once New Y ork City.
?She is now feeling much better.
?The fish smells awful.
?4. Dynamic verbs and stative verbs
?动态动词与静态动词
? a. Dynamic verbs
?They can be subclassified into three categories:
?＊durative verbs: 持续动作动词
?drink eat fly sleep rain read sit…
?These verbs normally admit of both the progressive and the non-progressive aspect(体) ?
?＊transitional verbs 改变或移动的动词
?arrive become change come go turn …
?These verbs normally admit of both the progressive
?and the non-progressive aspect(体)
?＊momentary verbs 短暂动作动词
?hit jump kick knock open close ….
?With momentary verbs, the non-progressive form
?indicates a single movement and the progressive
?form a repeated movement.
? e.g. The old man stops at a house and knocks at
?the door. Who is knocking at the door?
?b. Static V erbs
?They are verbs that refer to present or past states. They are normally compatible with the progressive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.
?be, have, belong to, differ from, cost, …
?5. Finite verbs and non-finite verbs
?English main verbs have two finite forms and three
?non-finite forms.
?The two finite forms are the present tense and the
?past tense.
?The three non-finte forms are:
?the infinitive (including the bare infinitive and the
?to-infinitive); the –ing participle and the –ed
?participle.
?6. regular verbs and irregular verbs ?(see p117)
2013年12月大学英语四级听力真题(附原文及答案解析)
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