(完整word版)跨文化交际复习提纲.doc

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural Communication Defined

1. IC is actually an academic and applied discipline that has developed internationally since the

1950s. Sometimes called“ cross-cultural communications”or“ comparative culture,”or

“ transculture” .

2.On one level, IC is represented by culture studies, where we examine the political,

economic and lifestyle systems of other countries.

3.On another level, it is applied linguistics, where we seek to understand the relationship

between language and culture.

4.IC is a broad and well-developed field of study.

5.IC is an interdisciplinary application of fields like cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology

(and social psychology), communication studies, applied linguistics and educational pedagogy.

6.IC is a comprehensive attempt to understand all aspects of human cultures and how they interact

with each other.

Forms of Intercultural Communication

a. International Communication

b. Interethnic Communication

c. Interracial Communication

d. Intracultural Communication

Definition Final

5)Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and

communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an

identifiable group of people.

2.Cultural Metaphors

1.The Cultural Iceberg

2.The Cultural Onion

3.The Cultural Software

4.The Cultural Fish

5.The Cultural Story

6.Culture by Chinese

7.Culture by Americans

3.Characteristics of Culture

1)Culture is shared

The members of a culture share a set of‘ ideals, values, and standards of behaviors’set of ideals is what gives meaning to their lives, and what bond them together as a culture.

2) Culture is learned

Actually, culture is not innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning

about their own culture at home with their immediate family and how they interact each other,

how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are growing in the community,

their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural

activities and rituals in the community, forming their own relationships and taking their place in

the culture.

3) Culture is based on symbols.

In order for the culture to be transmitted from one person to the next, and from one generation to

the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion and money.

4) Culture is integrated

For the sake of keeping the culture, functioning all aspects of the culture must be integrated. For example, the language must be able to describe all the functions within the culture in order for

ideas and ideals to be transmitted from one person to another. Without the integration of language into the fabric of the culture, confusion and dysfunction would reign and the culture would fail.

5) Culture is subjective to change (Dynamic)

It is necessary to recognize that cultures are dynamic rather than static. They are constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures.

6) Culture is ethnocentric

Ethnocentrism is the belief that your own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, ineffective, or quaint.

7) Culture is adaptive

History offers so many examples of how cultures have changed as a result of laws, shifts in values, natural disasters, wars, or calamities. More and more women work as CEOs in major companies and as officials in government instead of remaining at home looking after children. Both women

and men have made adaptation to this cultural change.

Western Perspective of communication

In western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms

of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one ’ s personal goal Eastern perspective of communication

Definitions of communication from many Asian countries stress harmony, which is most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. Eastern cultures’understanding would define communication as a process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.

2. Components of communication

Sender/Source （信息源）

A sender/source is the person who transmits a message

Message （信息）

A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.

Encoding （编码）

Encoding refers to the activity during which the sender

must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.

Channel /Medium（渠道）

. Channel/Medium is the method used to deliver a

message.

Receiver （信息接收者）

A receiver is any person who notices and gives

some meaning to a message.

Decoding （解码）

Decoding is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.

Feedback （反馈）

The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.

Noise （干扰）

Noise is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise ，physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise. Noise is inevitable.

1)External Noise

Sounds that distract communicators:

voices in the next room; annoying ring of someone’s cell phone in a meeting; etc.

Other types of external noise that don’t involve sound:

an overcrowded room or a smelly cigar

(2) Physiological Noise

illnesses and disabilities

(3) Psychological Noise

forces with the sender or receiver that interfere with understanding: egotism; hostility; preoccupation; fear; etc.

(4) Semantic Noise

caused by using different languages; the use of jargon; different understanding of the message delivered; etc.

3.Characteristics of Communication

a. Communication is dynamic

b. Communication is systematic

c. Communication is symbolic

d. Communication is irreversible

e. Communication is transactional

f. Communication is self-reflective

g. Communication is contextual.

High Context

A high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, which very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message.

Communication occurs in ways other than through language. People share context.

HC communication is fast and efficient, but takes long time to learn.

Low Context

A low-context (LC) is just the opposite, the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. Communication occurs mostly through language.

low-context sources: newspapers, textbooks, lectures, roadmaps, announcements, instruction

sheets etc.

More impersonal, but effective in transmitting information among people who do not share the same

experience.

Hofstede’ s cultural dimensions

1.Individualism versus collectivism

2.Uncertainty avoidance

3.Power distance

4.Masculinity versus femininity

Uncertainty Avoidance

This dimension refers to how comfortable people feel towards ambiguity

Cultures which ranked low (compared to other cultures), feel much more comfortable with

the unknown.

According to Hofstede ( 霍夫斯太德 ), uncertainty avoidance refers to the lack of tolerance for

ambiguity and the need for formal rules and high-level organizational structure.

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1. Culture Shock

◆refers to the traumatic [tr ?:'m?tik]experience that an individual may encounter when

entering a different culture.

◆expresses the lack of direction, the feeling of not knowing what to do or how to do things in a

new environment, and not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.

4.Stages of culture shock

The honeymoon stage The hostility stage The recovery stage The adjustment stage The

biculturality stage

1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

linguistic determinist interpretation---Language structure controls thoughts and cultural

norms.

linguistic relativity interpretation---Culture is controlled by and controls language.

According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, language is a guide to " social reality". It implies

that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way

of defining experience.

Eg. Nothing is more important than rice to the Chinese, so we have expressions like 人是“铁，饭是钢” and “铁饭碗”.

Verbal Communication Styles

Culture influences the style of communication at great level. The communication style is

concerned with the use of language

1.Direct and Indirect Verbal Interaction Styles

In the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’ s intentions.

Eg. U.S. Americans tend to use a straightforward form of request.

’ s In the indirect verbal style, on the other hand, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker

actual intentions.

Eg. Chinese tend to ask for a favor in a more roundabout and implicit way. （ P180)

2.Self-Enhancement and Self-Effacement Verbal Styles

The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the

importance of boasting about one’ s accomplishments and abilities.

Eg. In the classified ads, American ad might begin with,“ Ahletichandsome,malewithat a

good sense of humor seeks a funloving- partner?”

The self-effacement verbal style, on the other hand,

emphasizes the importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations and

modest talk.

“ Although I am not very- looking,good I ’ m

Eg. In the classified ads, Japanese ad might read,

willing to try my best.”

3. Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct Styles

An elaborate style emphasizes flashy and embellished language. This style of

communication can be seen in many Arab, Middle Eastern, and Afro-

American cultures.

An exacting style, where persons say no more or less than is needed, is used by

Americans.

A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements,

and even silence. A succinct style can be found in Japan, China, and some Native

American cultures

4. Personal and Contextual Style

The personal communication style emphasizes the individual identity of the speaker.

Eg. English has only one form for the second person, that is, you.

The contextual style highlights one’ s role identity and status.

Eg. Chinese, German and French, for example, have informal and formal forms of the

pronoun you (你 /您 ; du/Sie; tu/vous).

5. Instrumental and Affective Style

An instrumental verbal style is sender-based and goal-outcome based. The

instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. The

burden of understanding often rests with the speaker.

An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective

speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication, but with

the process. The responsibility of understanding rests with both the speaker and

the listener.

2.Categories of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesics(身势语）

oculesics(目光语 )

olfactics(嗅觉 )

haptics(触觉行为 )

chromatics(色彩学 )

attire ( 服饰)

paralanguage

silence

time

space

context

1)Kinesics

Kinesics is the non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of

any part of the body, or the body as a whole. In short all

communicative body movements are generally classified as kinesics.

1.Human Perception

(1)Sensation

(2)Perception

(3)Selection

(4)Organization

(5)Interpretation

The definition of acculturation

Acculturation （文化适应）refers to an individual’learnings and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture

2. Modes of acculturation

a.Assimilation

is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.

b.Integration

is a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while

maintaining identity with their native culture.

c. Separation and segregation

Separation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregation

d. Marginalization ( 边缘化 )

Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture.

Stereotyping

Stereotypes, found in nearly every intercultural situation, are a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of

people. The reason for the pervasive nature of stereotypes is that human beings have a

psychological need to categorize and classify.

Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because

they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and/or exaggerated. They are based on half-truths,

distortions, and often untrue premises and create inaccurate pictures of the people with

whom we are interacting.

Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and

reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for "truth." For years, women were

stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group. The stereotype of women as "homemakers"

often keeps women from advancing in the workplace. Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that one' s culture is primary to all explanations of reality.

We learn ethnocentrism very early in life, and primarily on the unconscious level. So it might

be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism on

intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett (Samovar, et al,

1998):

Competent communication

Competent communication is interaction

that is perceived as effective in fulfilling

certain rewarding objectives and is also

appropriate to the context in which the

interaction occurs.

Communication Competence

Communication competence is a social judgment that people make about others.

Intercultural Competence

“ The ability to become effective and appropriate in interacting across cultures”Intercultural communication competence

Intercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and

appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.

c. Attitudes

Many attitudes contribute to intercultural communication competence, including tolerance for

ambiguity, empathy, and nonjudgmentalness

d. Behaviors and skills

two levels of behavioral competence. The macro level includes many culture-general behaviors,

then there is the micro level, at which these general behaviors are implemented in culture-specific

ways.

Contextual Components of Intercultural Competence

Context refers to all the information in the actual communication setting, so some intercultural

communication scholars would use another term“ situational features” to refer to the context. -- Another aspect of context is the communicator's position within a speech community.

-- In addition, an individual s competence’ may be constrained by the political, economic, and

historical contexts.

Things We Can Do

1.Knowing ourselves

2.Respecting differences and appreciate similarities

3.Empathy

4.Knowing ourselves

5.First, we have to identify our attitudes, prejudices, and opinions that we all

carry and that bias the way the world appears to us.

6.If we hold a certain attitude toward gay men, and when a man who is a gay

talks to us, our pre-communication attitude will color our response to what he says.

7.Knowing our likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables us to

place them out in the open so that we detect the ways in which these attitudes

influence communication.

Appreciate Similarities and Respect Differences

Empathy

To improve empathy, first, we have to remind ourselves to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others and the situation where the interaction takes place. Then, as empathy is a reciprocal act, both parties have to be expressive so as to achieve understanding. Third, empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. Finally, we have to remember

that empathy can be increased if you resist the tendency to interpret the other's verbal and nonverbal actions from your culture' s orientation.