跨文化交际资料整理

·Verbal Intercultural Communication非言语行为:People from different cultural backgrounds communicate with other people through language.

·Social cultural elements:①cultural values ②worldview ③social organization ·globalization：①refers to the establishment of a world economy,in which national borders are becoming less and less important as transnational corporations, existing everywhere and nowhere ,do business in a global market. ②also refers to what is called time-spacecompression.(the increasing global mobility of people/ the impact of new electronic media on human communication)

·human needs: ①physiological（fundamental need）②safty ③ the belongingness (love,affection)④the esteem(respect) ⑤self-actualization(reach one’s potential)

·文化冰山理论（Edward T Hall）:Culture like an iceberg can be divided into two parts: culture above the waterline and culture below the waterline. Culture above the waterline is explicit, visible, tangible, easy to change with time, a tip of the iceberg. Culture below the waterline is implicit, invisible, intangible, hard to change with time, the majority.

·culture:can be defined as the coherent, learned, shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns that ranks what is important, furnishes attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior.

·language and culture: ①language reflects the environment in which we live. ②reflects cultural values ③language lives, it changes over time. ④language –and-cultural is embedded in cultural products, practices, perspectives, communities, and persons. language –and-cultural are two sides of the same coin, members of the culture use their language to portray their culture, to put their cultural perspectives into practice. Language unites products, practices, perspectives, communities, and persons.

·文化维度cultural dimensions(Geert Hofstede):individualism-collectivism，uncertainy avoidance ，power distance， masculinity-femininity ，long-term vs short-term.

·communication:①元素：context, participants(affecting aspects are relationship, gender, culture), messages(meaning, symbols, encoding and decoding), channels(sound and sight), noise(external, internal, semantic), feedback. ②过程，本质：dynamic process不断变化; symbolic象征的; systemic影响全局; complex; involves making inferences; has a consequence. ③作用：communication is a process involving the exchange of messages and the creation of meaning. It is effective to

the extent that we are able to minimize misunderstanding. Generally, the greater our cultural and linguistic knowledge, and the more our beliefs overlap with the people with whom we communicate, the less likelihood there will be misunderstandings.

④方式：high involvement高度卷入(Talk more, Interrupt more, Expect to be interrupt. Talk more loudly at times, Talk more quickly than those from cultures favoring “hig h considerateness”)。。high considerateness高度体谅⑤言语交际方式:1）person-oriented /status-oriented verbal styles：=individual-centered verbal mode，emphasizes the importance of informality & role suspension symmetrical interaction respecting unique, personal identity/= role-centered verbal mode，formality& large power distance，asymmetrical，honoring prescribed power-based membership identities 2）Self-enhancement(boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities) /Self-effacement(emphasizes the importance of humbling verbal restraints, modest talk) ⑥非言语交际作用:repeating, complementing, substituting, regulating, contradicting。。nonverbal behavior functions as a culturally rule-governed communication system. The rules are governed by culture,and the rules and nonverbal behavior differ among cultures.

·高低语境 high-context(Mexico, Japan, the Middle East)/ low-context(Germany, UK, US)

: ①定义：A high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the massage. A low-context (LC) communication is just the opposite; ., the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. ②features：low-context emphasizes direct talk, person-oriented focus, self-enhancement mode, and the importance of talk.·孔子confucianism: is not a religion but a set of practical principles and ethical rules for daily life.

①social order and stability are based on unequal relationships between people.(leader and follower, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, friends) ②the family is the prototype for all social relationships ③proper social behavior consists of not treating others as you would not like to be treated yourself ④people should be skilled, educated, hardworking, thrity, modest, patient, and persevering.

·the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A hypothesis holding that the structure of a language affects the perceptions of reality of its speakers and thus influences their thought patterns and worldviews. It alerted people to the fact that language is keyed to the total culture, and that it reveals a people’s view of its total environment.·stereotype: is a fixed notion about persons in a certain category, with no distinctions made among individuals. In other words, it is an overgeneralized and oversimplified belief we use to categorize a group of people.

·prejudice: an attitude based on erroneous beliefs or preconceptions.包括verbal

abuse, physical avoidance, discrimination, physical attack, massacre. 如何解决：we suggest that empathy is the main communication skill we should learn. Empathic persons know how to show understanding by projecting themselves into their partner’s position. This means that to be empathic in intercultural interactions we need to be openminded in terms of information sharings, to be imaginative in correctly drawing the picture of other’s situation, and to show a commitment or strong willingness to understand our culturally different partners in any kind of situation.

·适应新文化：adapting to new cultures involves first working through culture shock.

①do not become over-reactionary ②meet new people ③try new things ④give yourself periods of rest and thought ⑤work on your self-concept ⑥write ⑦observe body language ⑧learn the verbal language.

·ethnocentrism: belief in the intrinsic superiority of the nation, culture, or group to which one belongs, often accompainied by feelings of dislike for other groups. 如何克服：①to avoid complicating the already difficult task of intercultural communication, participants in a cross-cultural situation need to consider first the possibility that a negative evaluation might be based on an unrecognized cultural difference. Each person needs to be aware that he or she is evaluating the other, often on similarly ethnocentric grounds. ②cultural self-awareness is necessary, as is some knowledge of predominant patterns in the target culture and their variations.

·Identify the contrast between high-context and low-context culture and then use it to interpret the difference between American and Japanese or Chinese negotiating style

①Negotiation atmosphere。American: efficient, professionalism（职业精神）and compromise(妥协，让步) Japanese:socializing, trust Chinese: socialization

②Detail。American: the facts, written agreements or contrast Japanese: fewer specific issues and less detail oriented, brief written agreements Chinese: general written agreements

③Communication style。American: more interested in logical arguments than in the people they are dealing with dislike silence Japanese: encourage covert, fragmented Chinese: avoid openly confront conflict ④Cultural variations in selecting negotiators。American: technical

expertise :younger negotiators are common; women are included; having full authority to make decisions Japanese:(Chinese): Status, knowledge, age, seniority

⑤Problem-solving Process。American:universal problem solvers;

rational thinking and concrete data, utilize a factual inductive style of persuasion

Japanese: consensus-building Chinese: high level authorities

⑥Organizational Structure。American: task-related stage is the most

important; negotiating outcomes depend on events at the negotiation table

Japanese: pre-negotiation is slowly and cautiously; mediator is used Chinese: concession only comes at the end

·What are the American/Chinese cultural values like in terms of Cultural Orientation put forward by Kluekhohn and Strodthbeck

nature(人生) is evil but perfectible (American)

Good but corruptible (Chinese)

to the nature

Human beings can/should master/conquer with nature (American)

Live harmoniously with nature (Chinese)

of time。Americans are future oriented. Chinese are past oriented.

toward work and human activity

As to Americans, doing leads to external/achievements

Chinese,being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual good of inner harmony and peace.

relationship

American: Self is more important than group (individualism)

Chinese: In cultures with group values, people make decisions by consemsus ·Iden tify the features of each of four Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and apply it in the case study辨别+分析+结合案例

VS collectivism (个人/集体主义)

power distance VS high power distance(远/近权力距离)

VS femulinity (男性/女性文化)

uncertainty avoidance VS high uncertainty avoidance (不确定性)

context culture VS low context culture

·How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing

In Chinese, the surname is put before the given name.

In American, vice versa, the name order.

In recent years, many English-speaking people tend to address others by

their given names, even when meeting for the first time. But in Chinese, we tend to address each other with the full name.

Another common Chinese form of address is the use of a person’s title office, or profession

Therefore, one can conclude that the Chinese customs of addressing members with the kinship terms(亲戚关系) even not related by blood or marriage ·Who should be introduced first in the west

The senior, the female, the guest

·How is Chinese hospitality different from American hospitality

A: In China, a guest usually observes the principle of avoiding bringing trouble to the host.

In American, in contrast, it is the host who tries to avoid interfering in guests’ freedom of action by leaving room for the guests to make choices.

B: The Chinese host usually goes to trouble to make sure there is something left after the meal; the “wastefulness” of this practice has been criticized in American, and some advocate ordering more sensible quantities.

·A cultural assumption 文化定式

A cultural assumption Is when we assume that a person has particular values and attitudes based on their cultural backgrounds.

·How would Americans misunderstand the Chinese responses to the compliments

the first case, the implication was that the praisor had poor judgement praisor was not sincere

Chinese would be suspected of “fishing for compliments”

·（重要）How is the Chinese different from Americans in expressing gratitude

people don't usually say "thank you" to those who are very close and who are in a lower position. Thank you is very common in American, so they tend to thank people all day long regardless of relationship

Chinese customs don't require people to express thanks for the small favors. The Americans would thank you all the way for very small and most ordinary things.

·What are the 4 major verbal differences between Chinese and English term in one language doesn’t necessarily have a counterpart(对等的人事物) in the other language.

or terms in both languages appear to refer to the same object or concept only on the surface, but actually refer to quite different things

or concepts are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by many more terms in the other language, for example, finer distinctions in the other language

have more or less the same primary meaning, but have secondary or additional meanings that may differ considerably from each other.·Mono chronic time = M-time 单时性文化

Emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness(efficiency)and punctuality. It features one event at a time.

·Polychronic time = P-time 多时性文化

practiced by most other peoples is less rigid and clock-bound. People from P-time cultures schedule several activities at the same time ,and time for them is more flexible and more human-centered

·Proxemics 空间学

the perception and use of space

·Kinesics 身势学

more than just hand or arm gestures ;it refers to any little movement of any part of the body

·Paralanguage 副语言

language lies between verbal and nonverbal communication. It involves sounds but not words ,it means the set of nonphonemic properties of speech ,such as speaking tempo(节奏) ,vocal pitch（音高） and intonational contours （语音语调）

·Where are the different features of M-time and P-time

M-time :means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time. Emphasis on schedules, segmentation and promptness(efficiency)and punctuality. It features one event at a time.

P-time: practiced by most other peoples is less rigid and clock-bound. People from P-time cultures schedule several activities at the same time ,and time for them is more flexible and more human-centered

·What contrasting world views can be drawn from Buddhism and Christianity sees each one was born with sins and therefore we should salvage ourselves(自我拯救). The salvation of the individual is achieved through hard work and piety.

Christianity recognizes the importance of work and free ownership of property.

believes that there is a supreme and wonderful truth that the universes runs based on a dynamic balance.

They don’t attach themselves to the impermane nt objects and the pursuit of material well-being. Thus, little support is accorded to free enterprise..