跨文化交际整理材料

跨文化交际整理材料

https://www.360docs.net/doc/67449251.html,munication：

(1)Communication is A form of human behavior derived from a need to connect and interact with other human beings. It occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior.

(2)Its components: Message, Sender, Receiver, Channel, Noise, Feedback, Encoding, Decoding.

(3)Characteristics: communication is dynamic; irreversible; symbolic; systemic; self-reflective; interactive; complex.

(4)Five types of communication: human communication; animal communication; human-animal communication; human-machine communication; machine-to-machine communication. (In summary, under communication, we have human and biological/physical communication; under human communication, we have non-social and social communication; intre-personal in non-social communication while social communication includes interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication. )

2.Intercultural business communication:

(1) ICC is the term first used by Edward T. Hall in 1959 and is simply defined as interpersonal communication between members of different cultures.ICBC is a relatively new term in the business world and it is defined as communication within and between businesses that involve people from more than one culture.

(2)ICC的分类：ICC includes International communication (between nations and governments rather than individuals); Interethnic communication (between people of the same race but different ethnic background) (Tibetan vs. Han); Interracial communication (Afro-American vs. white American) ; Interregional communication: (northerner vs. southerner)

(3)跨文化交际障碍Barriers in Intercultural Communication: a.A voidance of the unfamiliar疏远陌生; b. Uncertainty reduction减少不确定性; c. Withdrawal回避; d. Stereotyping定势; e. Prejudice偏见; f. Racism种族; e. Misuse of power 滥用权力; h. Culture shock文化震惊; i. Ethnocentrism文化优越感.

3. Stereotyping: A stereotypes is an overly simplified / generalized way of thinking about a person, group, etc. Anyone can stereotype and can be the target of stereotyping! (课件答案) Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people. （课本答案）

4. Prejudice: Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or group of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups prior to actual experience of those groups. E.g Residents of Shanghai

●Relation between S tereotype and prejudice定势和偏见的区别

Both are a stumbling block to ICC. Prejudice usually refers to the negative aspect when a group inherits or generates hostile views about a distinguishable group based on generalizations. These generalizations are invariably derived from inaccurate or incomplete information about the other group.The generalization are called stereotyping.

5. Racism: （课本）It refers to the belief that one racial category is innately superior to another. （课件）It is any policy, practice, beliefs or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. It can either be conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional.

6. Culture shock: Cultural shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. Four stages (U-curve): Honeymoon phase; Culture shock phase/ Depression (horror); Recovery phase; Adjustment; (Acceptance/ Home)

7. Ethnocentrism民族优越感: Ethnocentrism is the belief that you own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, defective, or quaint. （The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is obvious: it shapes social sense of identity which is narrow and defensive; it normally involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes; ethnocentric judgments usually involve invidious comparisons that ennoble one’s culture while degrading those of others.）

8. Culture: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors. Institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people. (p41)

Culture can be classified by three large categories of elements：(1) Artifact; (2) concepts; (3) behavior. Characteristic of Culture ：（1）Culture is not innate; it is learned文化不是先天遗传的而是后天习得的;（2）Culture is

transmitted from generation to generation (social heredity)文化是代代相传的; (3)Culture is selective具有选择性; (4)The facets of culture are interrelated文化各要素相关联的; (5)Culture is ethnocentri c本民族具有文化优越感的倾向;

(6)Culture is subject to change是发展变化的.

9.Cultural values 定义以及四个层次：V alues are “a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action”文化观念的四个层次：(1)Symbol s符号;(2)Heroes英雄;(3)Rituals习惯;（4）V alues价值观.

(价值观的三个层次：(1)Universal values普遍的价值观; (2)Cultural-specific values某一文化特有的价值观; (3)Peculiar expression or deviations of individuals within cultures文化中的个体所持有的价值观.)

10. Power distance定义：Power distance indicates the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally among individuals.

(A High Power Distance ranking indicates that inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within the society. These societies are more likely to accept a hierarchical order. E.g. Mexico, South Korea, India.

A Low Power Distance ranking indicates the society de-emphasizes the differences between citizen's power and wealth. In these societies equality and opportunity for everyone is stressed. E.g U.S.)

11. Masculinity & Femininity区别：Masculinity indicates the extent to which the dominant values in a society tend towards assertiveness and acquisition of things and away concern for people and the quality of life. Masculinity comes from masculine and implies aggressiveness and assertiveness, while femininity comes from feminine and stresses naturaring, caring attention to people’s feelings and needs.

Masculinity: a high degree of gender differentiation, achievement, heroism, aggressiveness, assertiveness, material success. For Example: Japan, Austria, Italy.

Femininity: equal gender relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, quality of life. For example: Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

12. Uncertainty avoidance回避不确定性：It indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by ambiguous situation and tries to avoid them by providing rules, believing in absolute truths and refusing to tolerate deviance.

Strong Uncertainty Avoidance: uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity, intolerant with deviance. This creates a rule-oriented society that institutes laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty. For Example: Greece, Belgium, Portugal, Japan, Chile, Israel, and Spain.

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance：Practice counts more than principles; deviance is more easily tolerated. This is reflected in a society that is less rule-oriented, more readily accepts change, and takes more and greater risks. For example: Singapore, Sweden, Denmark, Malaysia

13. Universalism & Particularism普遍主义与特殊主义区别：Extent of belief in defined set of rules. Universalism: Performance-based considerations. Particularism: Relationship- or situation-based considerations. Universalistic cultures focus more on rules than relationships, have a preference for legal contracts, and believe there is only one truth. In universalistic cultures a deal is a deal. Trust is based on honoring your word or contract. Fairness is treating all people the same (United States, Australia, Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom）. Particularistic cultures focus more on relationships, change legal contracts easily and believe in several perspectives on reality. Particularists evolve their relationships to suit the situations. (V enezuela, Korea, the former Soviet Union, China, Indonesia)

14. Emotional & Neutral中立型和情感型的区别：Extent to which emotions are openly expressed. Neutral: Reserved and composed. Emotional: V ery expressive.Affective (Emotional): Affective cultures readily express their thoughts and feelings. Expressing feelings relieves tension. Emotions flow easily. Touching and gestures are common. Statements are dramatic and fluent.Neutral cultures do not openly reveal thoughts and feelings, admire self-possessed behavior and frown on physical contact.

( 课本定义参考A neutral culture is one in which emotions are held in check. Ethiopia, Japan, China, and India are high neutral cultures. People in these countries try not to show their feelings; they act stoically and maintain their composure. A emotional culture is one in which emotions are openly and naturally expressed. People in emotional cultures often smile a great deal, talk loudly when they are excited, and greet each other with a great deal of enthusiasm. Mexico, the Netherlands, and Switzerland are examples of high emotional cultures.)

15. Diffuse & Specific 明确型和弥漫型的区别：Extent to which various life roles kept separate. Specific: Compartmentalize roles. Specific cultures get to know people easily and maintain flexible relationships; yet specific cultures make acquaintances for specific or limited reasons. Diffuse: Mix personal, professional, and private roles. Diffuse cultures on the other hand, keep their distance from unknown others. Individuals are slower to develop relationships; however, once an individual has been accepted in a diffuse culture that person is in all the way. Example: p. 68

（课文定义参考A specific culture is one in which individuals have a larger public space they readily let others enter and share and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and associates. A diffuse culture is one in which both public and private space are similar in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as well

16. Ascription & Achievement 成就与归属的区别：Extent to which status depends on certain factors. Achievement: Status linked to goals obtained or performance. Ascription: Status linked to age, connections, class, or gender. Similar to Kluckhohn’s social relationships (hierarchy/ group/ individual)

Achievement------ Ascription

Austria United States Switzerland United Kingdom Sweden Singapore Former Soviet Union China Indonesia V enezuela (课本: An achievement culture is one in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions. An ascription culture is one in which status is attributed based on who or what a person is. )

17. Low-context culture & High-context culture区别：

Low-context culture: Tends to prefer direct verbal interaction; Tends to understand meanings at one level only; Is generally less proficient reading nonverbal cues; V alues individualism; Relies more on logic; Employs linear logic; Saying no directly; Communicates in highly structured messages, provides details, stresses literal meanings, gives authority to written information.

High-context culture: Tends to prefer indirect verbal interaction; Tends to understand meanings embedded at many socio-cultural levels; Is generally more proficient n reading nonverbal cues; V alues group membership; Relies more on context and feeling; Employs spiral logic; Talks around point, avoids saying no; Communicates in simple, ambiguous, noncontexted messages; understands visual messages readily.

High-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures

Japanese Chinese Korean …. …. American Scandinavian German German-Swiss

18. Individualism & Collectivism个人主义和集体主义的区别：Individualism indicates the extent to which a society is a loosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to take care of only of themselves and their immediate families. Collectivism emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence. It indicates a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups and expect their in-group to look after them.( P60表格对比) It is believed that individual is the core of western cultural value, while collectivism is the core of Eastern cultural value. Decision making in an individualist culture may be more rapid, the implementation of a change in policy will be perceptibly slower than in a collectivist culture. The individual will go along with what is best for the group with few questions asked. P77

19. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis P92（详细见课本）: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf concluded that language not only serves as a mechanism for communication, but as a guide to social reality. “language is a reflection of culture, and culture is

a reflection of language.” Some examples:P92

20. Connotation & Denotation 内涵意义和概念意义。（不记定义,P94-95举例、图连线）：

Denotation: dictionary definition.

Connotation (Cultural connotation): “the implication of a word, apart from its primary meaning” (Longman Modern English Dictionary) “the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes” (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary) eg. 松，竹，梅vs. pine, bamboo, plum (具体参考课件和课本例子)

21. Deductive & Inductive演绎法和归纳法: The deductive pattern: from the general to the specific; (西方交际模式)the inductive pattern: from the specific to the general（东方交际模式）.(具体例子见P116-118)

22. Nonverbal communication 定义、功能：(1) “Nonverbal communication involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that is generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that has potential message value for the source or receiver.” (Samovar and Porter, 2004)Simply, nonverbal communication refers to

communication without the use of words. Nonverbal communication is the study of facial expressions, touch, time, gestures, smell, eye behavior, and so on.

(2) Functions: (1) Replacing/ substituting (eg. A noisy cafeteria might get you to wave at a friend instead of screaming to get his attention); (2) Regulating (Eg. Turn taking); (3) Conveying; (4) Modifying (Eg. Loudness and tone of voice);

(5) Repeating; (6) Complementing (eg. “Attention please” ); (7)Contradicting (When there are contradictions, people tend to believe the verbal messages or nonverbal ones?); (8)Accenting (eg. A well-skilled public speaker might pause before or after an important point in a speech.)

Classification

Body language: posture, head movement, facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, handshaking, arm movement, leg movement etc.

Paralanguage: sound, pitch, tempo of speech, turn-taking, silence

Object language: clothing, personal artifacts, hair, etc.

Environmental language: time language, spatial language, color, light, signs and symbols, architecture, etc.

23. Paralanguage副语言: Paralanguage lies between verbal and nonverbal communication. It involves sounds but not words. It is related to oral communication. It refers to the rate, pitch, and volume qualities of the voice, which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message.

Researchers divide paralanguage into three categories: voice quality, vocal qualifiers, and vocalization.

V oice Qualifiers声音的修饰：refers to volume, pitch, rhythm, resonance, tempo Tone, stresses, etc. (课文例子P154)

V ocalization 发音: “un-huh”, “shh”, “uh”, “oooh”, “mmmh”``````````````````````(P156)

Silence 沉默：（沉默是划分高语境文化和低语境文化的一条重要标准P157-158）

24. Spatial language/Proximics 4种空间语言：Spatial language is the study of the way that people use physical space to convey message. Proxemics is usu. concerned with personal space and office space. Factors that affect personal space: sex, age, relationship, culture. Examples: Closer physical distance. Latin culture, Middle Eastern culture. Extra interpersonal distance Asian culture, Nordic culture.

Zones of spatial distance: (1) Intimate zone(no distance to 6 to 18 inches): is reserved for very close friends. loving, comforting, protecting or fighting; (2)Personal zone(18 inches to 4 feet): is for giving instructions to others or working closely with another person. Conversations with intimates, friends and acquaintances; (3) Social zone (4-12feet): is used in business situations in which people interact in a more formal, impersonal way. (e.g: a meeting); (4) Public zone (12-25feet or over): is used when calling across the room or giving a talk to a group. Lectures, concerts, plays, speeches, ceremonies.

25. Monochromic time (M-time) & Polychromic time (P-time) 多元时间化与单一时间区别(P165-166表格):

M-time cultures emphasize schedules, a precise reckoning of time, and promptness. Eg. United states, Britain, Canada, and Australia as well as many of the cultures in Northern Europe, managers adhere to M-time schedules.

In contrast, P-time cultures emphasize the completion of transactions and the involvement of people rather than a rigid adherence to the clock. They tend to do several things at the same time. Latin America and Middle East. P171案例

★以下内容主要是看课文

26. gestures 手势含义P142-143

27. resume 的基本知识：P199-203

28. Buffer ？

间接方式步骤：(1) Open with a buffer; (2) continue with a logical, neutral explanation of the reasons for the bad news; (3) following with a clear but diplomatic statement of the bad news; (4) close with a positive forward-looking statement that is helpful and friendly. P192-195详细内容

29. Direct/Indirect plan: P189-191

30. Good- / bad-news message: P189-191

31. Etiquette 不考定义，基本的礼节内容P254：

32. Protocol 礼仪. 课本第六章