词汇学笔记整理
第一讲：
1.考试题形式分为：
Ⅰ.选择题(30分)：完全是考书中的例子，理论与例子的结合,也就是 ‘Theory’和 ‘Example’ 的结合。
Ⅱ.填空（10分）：考特例,不是考简单的‘Examples﹑Theory’而是考‘
Exceptions’ .
Ⅲ.（10分） 考试内容：
ⅰ.Types of meaning changes: 词意变化的种类
ⅱ.Types of meaning : 词义的种类，如：概念意义，联想意义，情感意义等。
ⅲ.Languages branches :语系与语族, 语系如：印欧语系；语族如：一个大的语
系下分为那几个小的语族，如：日尔曼语族，斯堪的纳维亚语族等。
ⅳ. Feathers of idioms: 习语的特点
Ⅳ.(10分) 考试内容：
ⅰ.Types of Bound Morphemes: 粘着词素的种类
ⅱ.Types of Word Formations: 构词法的种类
ⅲ.Types of Meaning: 词义的种类
ⅳ.Types of Meaning of Idioms:习语涵义的种类
Ⅴ. 名词解释 (10分)：
Ⅵ. 简答题 (12分)：
ⅰ.比较题：两种理论/概念之间的区别就叫比较题，比如说‘概念意义与联想意
义有何区别，粘着词素与派生词根有何区别，两种事物与两种理论之间的区别等。
ⅱ.名词解释扩展题：难的名词解释派生的简答题， 如:Affected Meaning 名词
解释起来太长了，放在简答题里，就成为： What is Affected Meaning,
briefly exemplify it.
ⅲ.Optional: 可考可不考的题，往往是给出名词让你举例子
Ⅶ.分析题(18分)：给出例子，让你用理论加以分析。
二. 串讲内容：
Introduction 部分：
Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支:
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.
Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:
1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究lexicology 的两大方法:
1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学
2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学
e.g. wife
纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？
Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization
第一章部分：
What is word ?
词具有哪些特点？
词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;
2) A sound unity or a given sound ;
3) a unit of meaning;
4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.
以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
词的分类（classification of a word）
词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？
1) simple words 2) complex words
单音节词例子：
e.g. Man and fine are simple
多音节词例子：
e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail
management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment
misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune
blackmail 次划分为black 和 mail
What is the relationship between sound and meaning?
1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.
e.g. dog. cat
2)The relation
ship between them is conventional.
3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by
different sounds.
What is relationship between sound and form?
1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of
the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral
form, such as English language.
2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English
3)With the development of the language, more and more differences
occur between the two.
What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or
irregularity between sound and form?
1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was
adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to
represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do
double duty or work together in combination.
2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly
than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far
apart.
3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the
early scribes.
4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of
enriching the English vocabulary.
要记住以上四句话中的关键词：
1) influenced by Romans
2) Pronunciation changed
3) early scribes
4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？
e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)
外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but
it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.
Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book,
a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.
Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in
linguistics?
Three criteria :
1) By use of frequency
2) By notion
3) By origin
By use of frequency 可划分为：
1) The basic word stock
2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion 可划分为：
1) Content word
2) Functional word
Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)
Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. (
Functional words 的别称)
Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e.
stability
According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine
functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will
,you
What are the characteristics of basic word stock?
1) All national character
2) Stability
3) Productivity
4) Polysemy
5) Collocability
要把握住‘All national character’的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词
稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？
e.g. man, woman ,
fire, water …
e.g. machine, video, telephone …
e.g. bow, chariot , knight
Stability is relative, not absolute.
根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic
vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？
1) Terminology
e.g. sonata, algebra
2) Jargon
e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon )
3) Slang
e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang )
4) Argot
e.g. persuader
5) Dialectal words
e.g. station ( AusE = ranch )
bluid ( ScotE= blood)
6) Archaisms
e.g. wilt (will)
7) Neologisms
e.g. email ( Neologisms )
beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference
Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content
words or functional words ?
Answer : Content words
What is native words?
Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native
words and borrowed words.
(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by
the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as
Anglo-Saxon words.
(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to
roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic
word stock and stand at the core of the language
什么叫borrowed words?
Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as
borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.
(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80
percent of the modern English vocabulary
(3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary
some 80% of the entries are borrowed.
什么叫Denizens?
Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well
assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to
conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port
from portus (L).
‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),
shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier
(F), pork from porc (F).
什么叫Translation-loans ?
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing
material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from
another language, such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
什么叫Semantic-loans ?
words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But
their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new
meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream
,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’, and its modern meaning was
borrowed later from the Norse.
第二章：The development of the English vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it
5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language
families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and
grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准）
What is the criteria to divide language families ?
The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock
2. grammar
(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)
Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.
‘Indo-European’ 两大分支：
1.Eastern set
2.Western set
Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian
Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.
In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.
Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton
The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French,
Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.
The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages:
Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as
Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and
English.
With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English
language.
It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have
survived in modern English.
Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a
highly inflected language just like modern German.
重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in
England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )
古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)
Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？
.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English
period )
如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,
modern period.
*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）
Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance
Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？
The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period
现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)
The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from
(Colonization )
The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the
present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)
Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
Three main sources of new words :
1)The rapid development of modern science and technology
2)Social, economic and political changes;
3)The influence of other cultures and language
2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development
1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing
2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）
Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer
外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 .
重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words .
恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色
Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of
English vocabulary though quite insignificant
. This is especially true
of American English.
英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪
一个阶段完成的？
答案：Modern English period
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?
答案：Early Modern English period
在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？
French, Latin, English in Middle English period
easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？
答案：Middle English , Dutch
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这
种语言是什么？
答案：Dutch (前年考题)
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?
答案：50,000 to 60,000
他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )
第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt
, kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary
注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?
答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was
one of leveled endings.
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?
答案：Greek , Roman culture
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?
答案：Modern English
十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?
答案：Printing
这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization.
第三章复习:
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)
The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel
change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被
称作(zero derivation)
名词解释:
Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as
morphemes.
In other words, the morphemes is ’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,
e.g.
the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different
sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches
It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet,
man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish
简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)
答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes
Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes
and are considered to be free.
2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used
as free grammatical units in sentences.
3) The
y are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a
single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root
.
4) free morphemes are free roots.
bound morphemes: 1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are
bound..
2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix
affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate
grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional
morphemes.
Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to
other morphemes to create now words.
2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and
suffixes.
root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further
analyzed without total loss of identity.
2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main
component of meaning in a word
3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all
inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’
stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of
two root
morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.
2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational
morphemes as in
mouthful, underestimate.
3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of
any kind can
be added.
问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)
答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can
be added.
问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析?
Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can
function alone in a sentence,
Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and
suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still
remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict
carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the
other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary ,
contradiction .
问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in
the village,
too heads are better than one.
请从构词角度分析以上的例子,
cleverer , better
cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes )
better ( good , well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well.
第四章:
问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?
答案：有七种:
1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening
5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending
有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion
问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?
答案：Extension
问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?
答案：Narrowing
问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类
？
答案：Affixation is also known as derivation
Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation
要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:
a-, non, ir : negative prefixes
de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes )
mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes
super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size
anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude
trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes
fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order
bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes
pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes
suffixation :
1. Noun suffixes
1) Denominal nouns
2) Deverbal nouns
3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness,
4) Noun and adjective suffixes
注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释.
要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open
简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?
What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?
答案：
1) phonetic features
2) Semantic features
3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb
compounds
问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?
在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?
动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?
*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one
class to another class.
Functional shift = conversion
Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)
Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？
答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive
简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)
问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?
答案： Ifs and buts
blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)
问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？
1. head + tail
2. head + head
3. head + word
4. word + tail
问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?
答案：nouns
The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns;
very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.
问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？
答案：There are four common types of clipping :
1) Front clipping
2) Back clipping
3) Front and back clipping
4) Phrase clipping
要注意clipping 的例子
有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) ,
还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)
问题：什么是acronymy？
Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial
letters of neames of social and political organizations or special
noun phrases and technical terms
Acronymy 包含两类:
1) initialisms (不发音)
e.g. BBC, VOA, TB
2) acronyms (形成新的发音)
e.g. CORE, TEFL
`
Words from proper names 有四大类:
1. Names of people
e.g. bobby : Names of people
2. Names of places
e.g. champagne, rugby
3. Names of books
e.g. utopia
4. Tradenames
e.g. cabal
问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,
这种构词被称作) backformation
bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people
VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms
Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping
Sitcom : blending
FORTRAN : head + head
Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词)
Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )
重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift.
问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词 ？
答案：compounding
问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？
答案：Adjectives compounds
问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？
答案： 有三类
1) n + v-ing
2) n + a
3) n + v-ed
问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？
答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )
问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?
答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:
1) Phonetic features
2) Semantic features
3) Grammatical features
问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?
答案 ：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）
问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？
答案：composition
问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？
答案：compounds
问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？
答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, open
solid : blackmail , blackmarket
hyphenated: brother-in-law,
open : green horn , green hand
问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs
答案：有三类：
1) Both transitive and intransitive
2) Only transitive
3) Only intransitive
问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?
答案：verb to noun
e.g. catch
问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?
答案：分为两类：
1) full conversion e.g. black , white
2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor
问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？
答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract
e.g.
host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词）
friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词）
问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )
答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出）
问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without any
change in sound and spelling. （true or false).
答案： true
外来词分为四类：
1) Denizens
e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus
2) Aliens
e.g. gar
age , decor
3) Translation -loans
e.g. long time no see
4) Semantic- loans.
e.g. dream
判断对错题：
1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true
or false )
答案：true
2． The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly
arbitrary and conventional.
(true or false ).
答案：true
3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different
antonyms .(true or false)
答案：true
4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes. (true or
false )
答题： false
重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one
antonym.
E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）
选择题：
Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? .
a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language
答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)
问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American?
A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress
答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground )
问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一
种构词法？
A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation
答案： C ) blending
问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word
C) derived word D) shortened form.
e.g. goldmine (compound word )
bike ( shortened form )
process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它
是一个前缀)
supermarket ( derived word )
language ( simple word )
driver ( derived word )
dorm ( shortened form, clipping )
modernize ( derivation )
blackboard ( compound )
bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus )
(可能会出现的题)What is the difference between content words and
functional words, illustrate your point with examples ? ( 未考过)
注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
(复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative meaning and
connotative meaning?
(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of
the English vocabulary? ( 未考过)
答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。
(关键答好第一个特点: ‘All national character ， 它又分为五个特点)
前四章复习的内容：
问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping?
A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo
答案：Motel: (blending)
问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ?
答案：50,000 to 60,000
问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素
分为哪两类？
答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes
选择题或填空：
Besides French words, English also absorb as many as 2,500 words in the
Middle English Period. (Dutch )
A wor
d is a symbol that B .
A ) is used by same community
B) represents something else in the world
C) both simple and complex in nature
D) Show different ideas in different sounds
The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called
degradation or pejoration.
Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability, but has limited
Productivity
问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗， 以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？
1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )
2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning )
3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )
4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation )
5) headache (compound n + v )
6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么： bound morphemes )
7) preview ( prefix : 前缀)
8) receive ( bound root )
9) called ( inflectional affixes )
第五章：Word Meaning
The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?
意义中的含义的三个层次的划分:
What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?
1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept )
2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference )
3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference)
(Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept )
What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）
答: Arbitrary and conventional
名词解释: reference
名词Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .
They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.
2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .
3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
重点: sense 的名词解释：
Sense : 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
2. Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.
*3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
重点：What are the type of motivation？
1) Onomatopoeic motivation
2) Morphological Motivation
3) Semantic Motivation
4) Etymological Motivation
填空:
1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
2. Compounds are totally differen
t in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
3. pen in old English , refers to the feather, but with the development of technology, fountain was invented , but the name of this material was kept up to this day, people still used the pen to refer to writting tool, this motivation is called (etymological motivation)
4. Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )
https://www.360docs.net/doc/b86939385.html,conic answer (简短回答),
laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation)
问题: pingpong ball , cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?
答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation
问题:at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river, 此时采用了哪一种理据构成?
答案: Semantic movtivation
论述题: 1. What are the types of motivation?
2. What are the types of meaning?
按大的分支来分分为: (1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning
分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’, analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning.
Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.
(语法意义上分析没考过, 但从词汇意义上分析考过)
语法意义指一个词的词性, 句中充当的成份, 句子的时态,单复数形式等.
1)’Dog, cat’ are nouns, and ’chase’ is transitive verb.
2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense.
3) ’The dog, a cat’ are singular form.
问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请 从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?
Both ’pen and sword’ are nouns.
’mightier’ is an adjective, and ’than’ is preposition.
The sentence is in simple present tense.
这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?
’Mightier than’ is comparative degree.
’pen and sword’ are in singular form.
’The pen’ is subject, and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’.
’mightier’ is predictive.
重点名词解释:
Conceptual meaning:
1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2) Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language.
*Associative meaning :(一定要把它的四种分支答上)
1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated.
3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc.
4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
问题: Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody, every
situation and every time, analyze the statement?
答案: e.g. A child is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’, hence unfavourable connotatitions,
问题: 某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？
答案：e.g. A phrase like ’son of a *****’ which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’ and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time.
问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?
答案:In some dictionaries, stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’, ’informal’, ’literary’, ’archaic’, slang’.
Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: ’frozen’, ’formal’, ’consultative’, ’casual’ and ’intimate’.
问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?
答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal
注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.
在情感意义affective meaning, 考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类:(年年affective meaning 例子都考)
(1) appreciative meaning
(2) pejorative meaning
Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好: pretty , handsome
Green 搭配的例子记好: green on the job, green fruit , green with envy , green-eyed monster.
复习:
问题: Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?
答案:Complex
Morphological motivation
问题: 有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确)
有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)
The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference.
问题: ’Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?
答案: Grammatical meaning
问题: ‘frozen, ‘formal’ , ‘consultative’, ‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分， 是根据什么的划分?
答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos.
问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).
问题: ’Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car’，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？
答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different.
问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo , which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated.
问题：’Unexpected, expectation, expecting’, these three words are (morphologically) motivated.
问题： ’H
opeless, jobless, dislike’, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated)
问题：’East or west , home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’. 这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？
答案: Connotative meaning
第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field
polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two Approaches to Polysemy:
1) Diachronic approach
2) Sychronic approach
Two Processes of Development
1) radiation
(1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.
(2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.
e.g. face, neck
2) concatenation
(1) meaning ‘ linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning .
(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.
e.g. treacle
注意： 这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）
问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?
答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations.
types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？
答案：Hyponymy?
问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？
答案： Semantic field
问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。
比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？
答案：Contradictory terms
它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy
问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？
答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.
问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？
答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground）
e.g. huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big , small , quite big, quite small）
e.g. y
oung / old
这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)
问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词， 这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？
答案： polysemy
问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？
答案：Homophone
重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？
1) perfect homonyms
e.g. bank , bear
2) homographs
e.g. bow, sow
3) homophones
e.g dear, deer
right, write, rite
重点：Origins of Homonyms
1) Change in sound and spelling
2) Borrowing
3) Shortening
问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上?
1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms
重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？
（ 未考过）
6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms
e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns )
humor, sarcasm or ridicule
重点：名词解释 Synonyms
Types of Synonyms :
1) Absolute synonyms
2) Relative synonyms
重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源， 配以例子说明就可以了)
1) Borrowing
2)Dialects and regional English
3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words
4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms )
1) Difference in denotation
2) Difference in connotation
3) Difference in application
antonymy : 反义关系
要点:反义词的三种类别的划分:
What are the different types of antonyms?
三种类别的名词解释都要记:
1) Contradictory terms
exclusive
特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem.
e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述)
2) contrary terms
关键词: two poles or extremes
middle ground
e.g. rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)
3) Relative terms
e.g. parent / child , predecessor/ successor
问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms?
1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition
特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g. read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.
2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
(这个特点只适用于polysemous )
e.g. fast , dull
3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念)
e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一 部分, 所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容)
dog / ***** ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, *****是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,*****是狗的一种,因此我们说*****必然被dog所包容,所以,它们
之间存在着Semantic inclusion)
(语义上的包容性还没有考过)
e.g. tall/short, old /young
4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
(特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过, 重要的选择或填空内容)
e.g. happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative, happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite )
The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中)
e.g. rain or sine
high and low
easy come, easy go
名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念)
Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
2)That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
3) These specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms.
注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词.
比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?
分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以tool 是一个superordinate , hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms.
(用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点)
hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)
注意: 上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系.
重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过)
Semantic Field: 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the ‘words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields.
3) According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields.
4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.
注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同.
复习第六章:
问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false )
问题: true
e.g. fast, dull
问题: 反义词分为哪三类:
1) Contradictory terms
2) Contrary terms
3) Relative terms
问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?
答案: Contradictory terms
问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?
答案:contrary terms
问
题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错?
答: 错
husband and wife : relative terms
man and woman : contradictory terms
问题: empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉, empty表示的是修饰容积,容量, 没有填充物的空荡荡, 而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied, not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment, 而人去楼空的房间叫empty room, 请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)
答案:
Differnece in application :
Empty, vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are not the same.
Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied.
问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明?
答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/ *****
tall/ short, old /young
问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?
答案: diachronic approach
像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?
答案: radiation
e.g. face, neck
问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.
答案: diachronic approach
问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?
答案:contrary terms
Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below:
huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny
( 这种分析题目易考)
看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析?
答案:
这些词都属于furnature, furnature 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy.
第七章: Changes in Word Meaning
两个大的部分:
1. Types of Semantic changes (五种)
(1)extension
extension 又被称作generalization
e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer
"barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’
(2)narrowing
narrowing 又被称作specialization
e.g. "deer" animal---now just ’deer’
"corn" grain---now ’maize’only
’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’
(3) degradation
degradation 又被称作pejoration
e.g. "boor" peasant---now a rude, ill-mannered person
"churl"peasant or free man---uncultivat
ed or mean person
"hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral
"villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel
(4) elevation
elevation 又被称作 ameliration
e.g. "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight, pleasant’
"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’
"constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’
(5) transfer
e.g. paper ( p140)
the lip of a wound ( associated transfer)
purse for ’money’ (associated transfer )
clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )
2.Causes of Changes :
1)extra linguistic factors
(1) historical reason
a word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed.
e.g. " pen" feather in the past ---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens
increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors.
(2) class reason
elevation and degradation
(3) Psychological reason
The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words
Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.
e.g. "copperhead" on p.143
2)linguistic factors
The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system.
Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.
The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.
语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English
2)technical terms
3)from proper nouns to common words
问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?
答案: Narrowing
问题: 词义缩小有几个特例?
答案:有三个特例
1) From common words to proper nouns
e.g. city ---> the City
pennisular --->the Pennisular
profit --->the Profit
2) shortening
3) material nouns
问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的:
1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?
答案: degradation.
2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?
答案: Narrowing
3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?
答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns ,
4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种
答案：Extension
5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?
答案：Extension
6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?
答案：Narrowing or specialization
7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个
原因造成的?
答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason
8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?
答案： Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason ,
9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?
答案：Etymological motivation
10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?
答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason.
11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式?
答案:transfer (书140页)
12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?
答案: generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns.
13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?
答案: From common nouns to proper nouns
习题练习:
1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____
A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above
答案:D
2)问题: Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语 , 它采用了哪一种motivated ?
答案: semantically motivated
3)问题: Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy , generally , radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?
答案: radiation proceeds concatenation
4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes , which are most productive , which are most common?
答案:Extension and narrowing
5) 问题: wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman , 这是属于哪一种?
答案：Narrowing
6) 问题: Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god , 是哪一个词义变化模式?
答案: Elvervation
7) 问题: silly 它现在的词义是foolish, 它是哪一种语义的变化模式?
答案: Degradation
8)问题: cukoo, 它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟, 它是哪种理据构成的词?
答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation
9)问题: Italian , 它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族?
答案: Indo-European language family
Western set
Italic
10)问题: Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?
答案: Indo-European language family
Western set
Hellenic
11)问题: fair and square, 这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?
答案： Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme
问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?
答案：有四个：
1) Semantic opposition
2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
3) Semantic inclusion
4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
问题： "The chicken is ready to eat", 请你从语境的角度来分析？
答案：This is wrong sentence, because
it has two problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference
According to two functions of Context
1) Elimination of ambiguity
2) Indication of Reference
This sentence can be corrected as follows :
1)what a nice smell, the chicken is ready to eat.
2) The chicken is hungery, so the chicken needs foods.
选择题：
A concept has referring expressions ____.
A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.
答案：B
The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship, such as ____ .
A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.
答案： D)
问题：pick and choose , 它算习语中的哪一个类别？
答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）
问题：rain or shine ， 它算习语中的哪一类
答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)
kith and kin
alliteration
might and main
alliteration
cooked 这是哪一种, 请从词缀的角度来加以区别cooked
inflectional affixation
employer
derivational affixes
名词解释：connotative meaning : is also known as connnotation
What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms ?
face 是多义词 , ball 不是
论述题： I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician.
I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.
以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119)
注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。
Chapter 8 meaning and Context
要记两个重要部分:
1 Context 如何进行分类
两种: 1) Linguistic context
In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word
appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.
2) Extra-linguistic context
or non-linguistic context
IN a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释
1)Linguistic context
Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context
Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The
meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call gram
matical context.
重点:简答题: What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过, 但是整个context 考过)
重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?
三个作用: 1) Elimination of Ambiguity
Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy
2) Indication of Referents
Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing.
3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning
在3) 中又包括八种线索:
(1) Definition
(2) Explanation
(3) Example
(4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy
(6) Hyponymy
(7) Relevant details
(8) Word structure
第九章: English Idioms
这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。
名词解释: Idioms (重点)
(1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short
sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.
(2)Strickly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements.
(3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions.
9.1 Character5istics of Idioms
9.1.1 semantic unity (重点)
1) idioms each consist of more than one word.
2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity.
3) quite often the idiom functions as one word.
e.g. " till the cows come home" , means ’ forever as an adverb.
9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点)
1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first , the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.
e.g. " in a brown study" ( deep in thought )
" lip service" ( support only in words, not in fact )
" kick the bucket " ( die)
" bury the hatcher" ( come to friendly or peaceful terms)
2) Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed.
e.g. twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion’s share
3) Thirdly, the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to , not even an article.
e.g. out of the question means ’ impossible’
in question ( being considered)
4) Finally , many idioms are grammatical unanalysable,
e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched )
like cures like
(as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly )
stepped up ( improve or enhance)
in the raw ( naked )
turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life )
draw the curtain ( end or concel )
9.2 Classification of Idioms
The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning, of determining the syntactic functions of idioms
e.g. heart and soul ( adverbial )
Idioms may be classified into five groups:
1) Idioms Nominal in Nature
2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature
3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的）
注意：考试的一个要点在这， 动词性习语有哪两类划分？
(1) phrasal verbs : 短语动词
(2) verbal phrases : 动词短语
4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature
e.g. "