英语词汇学复习大纲整理

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念

1.1 the definition of a word

（

alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that

make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.

1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇

nonbasic vocabulary

非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇

by notion 按概念分：

content words and functional words

实义词和功能词

by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性

stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性

terminology 术语

jargon 行话

slang 俚语

argon 黑话

dialectal words 方言词

archaism 古语词

neologism 新词

neutral in style 文体上中性

frequent in use 使用频繁

native words

本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词

aliens 异形词

translation-loans 译借词

1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin

2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly

3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition

4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious

characteristics

明显的特点

(Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between

notions, words, etc.)

2D e v e l o p m e n t

It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.

2.1 Indo-European

印欧语Eastern set

：

东部诸语族

Western set：

西部诸语族

Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语

Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语

Armenian 亚美尼亚语

Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语

Celtic 凯尔特语

Italic 意大利语

Hellenic 希腊语—Greek

Germanic 日耳曼语

Persian 波斯语

Bengali 孟加拉国语

Hindi 印地语

Romany 普吉赛语

Prussian 普鲁士语

Lithuanian 立陶宛语

Polish 波兰语

Czech 捷克语

Bulgarian 保加利亚语

Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语

Russian 俄语

Norwegian 挪威语

Icelandic 冰岛语

Danish 丹麦语

Swedish 瑞典语

German 德语

Dutch 荷兰语

Flemish 佛兰德语

Portuguese 葡萄牙语

Spanish 西班牙语

French 法语

Italian 意大利语

Roumanian 罗马尼亚语

Scottish 苏格兰语

Irish 爱尔兰语

Welsh 威尔士语

Breton 布里多尼语

Scandinavian languages

斯堪的纳维亚语

Latin 拉丁语言

2.2 Historical review

历史概述

2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary

2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development

50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇

Highly inflected 高度曲折

complex endings 复杂的结尾

vowel changes 元音变化

French words 法语词汇

leveled endings 水平结尾

Early Modern English (1500-1700)

早期现代英语

Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)

晚期现代英语

Borrow 借词

new words 新词

no endings 无结尾

（from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。

从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。）

the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％）

现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（45 ％）

social, economic and political changes（11 ％）

社会，经济和政治的变化（11 ％）

the influence of other cultures and languages（24 ％）

其它文化和语言的影响（24 ％）

Creation 创词——formation of new words, most important

semantic change 旧词新义——old form with new meaning, new usages

borrowing 借词——vital role

Old English (450--1150) ——Anglo-Saxon

古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语

Middle English (1150-1500)

中古英语

Modern English (1500-up to now)

现代英语

three main sources

三种主要来源

3.1 Morphemes 词素 Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the .词素是―构词中最小功能单位‖。

3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体

Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning'.

The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。

morpheme

3.3 Types of Morphemes 3.4 Root and Stem

The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements 词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素 monomorphemic words ：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.

单语素词在句子中独立起作用

allomorphs ：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme

词素变体可替换语素（音标）的相同词素

free morpheme —— free root 自由语素自由词根

bound morpheme

粘着语素 bound root ：fundamental meaning

粘着词根基本意义

affix 词缀（附加物） attach, modify 附着，修饰 Inflectional affix —— attached to the end of words 附在词尾

曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系

derivational affix 派生词缀 prefix

前缀

Suffix

后缀

affix

词缀

root or stem

词根或词干 Independent 独立

free grammatical units 自由的语法单位 complete meanings 完整的意义

Word formation

构词的方式

4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses （子类）:

derivation , for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives .

词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做―派生词‖。

4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法（we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis

into nine groups 我们可以在语义基础上

将前缀分为九类）

前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。 affixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（30%--40% ） compounding (28%-30%) 复合法(28% -30% ） conversion (26%) 转化法（26% ） shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法（8% -10%） blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 ％-5% ） clipping 删节 acronymy 首字母缩略法 prefixation 前缀法 —— before the word, modify the meaning 前置，改词意

suffixation 后缀法 —— after the word, change word class 后置，改词性

Negative prefixes 否定前缀(a-, an-, dis-, in-, non-, un-) Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀(de-, dis-, un-) Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀(mal-, mis-, pseudo-) Prefixes of degree or size 程度大小前缀(arch-, co-, hyper-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, under-, ultra-, super-, sur-) Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀(anti-, contra-, counter-) Locative prefixes 方位前缀(fore-, inter-, sub-, super-, trans-) Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀(ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re-) Number prefixes 数字前缀(bi-, di-, multi-, poly-, semi-, demi-, tri-, uni-, mono-) Miscellaneous prefixes 多种前缀(auto-, extra-, neo-, paleo-, pan-, proto-, tele-, vice-)

4.1.2 Suffixation

后缀法

semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.

后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。 Noun suffixes 名词后缀 Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀

Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise

副词后缀

Verb suffixes ：-ate,-en,- (i)fy,-ize (-ise)

动词后缀

1) Denominal nouns 名词派生来的名词

2) Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词 3) De-adjective nouns :-ity,-ness 由形容词转化为名词 4) Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist

名词和形容词后缀

a. Concrete 具体名词 –eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-ter

b.Abstract 抽象名词 –age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-ship a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, -ant ，-ee ，-ent ，-er （-or ） (这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。。。) b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc ：-al ，-age ，-ance ，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence ，-ing ，-ment (这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、结果、过程、状态等。。。)

1) Denominal suffixes ：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y 名词派生的后缀（加名词后） 2) Deverbal suffixes:-able （-ible ），-ive （-ative ，-sive ）动词派生的后缀（加动词后）

4.2 Compounding 复合法

is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是―由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位‖。

4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征 Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面

4.4.2 Formation of Compounds 复合词的形成

4.3 Conversion 转类法 1).Phonetic features

语音特点 —— first element stress 第一个构词成分重音

2).Semantic features 语义特点 —— unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词

3).Grammatical features 语法特点 —— single grammatical role 独立的语法作用

Noun compounds 名词性复合词

Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词

Verb compounds 动词复合词 conversion 反转

backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法

1.Conversion to noun 转化为名词

2. Conversion to verbs 转化为动词

3.Miscellaneous conversion 混合反转 1) Verb to noun 动词转名词 2) Adjective to noun 形容词转名词 (1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉）

(2) Event or activity 事件或行动

(3) Result of the action 行动的结果

(4)

Doer of the action 行动的发出者

(5) Tool or instrument to do the action with 行动的工具

(6) Place of the action 行动的地点

(1) Words fully converted

完全转化的词 (2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词

(3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化

(1) To put in or on N

放入名词

(2) To give N or to provide with N

提供名词

(3) To remove N from

从……消除名词

(4) To do with N 用名词做……

(5) To be or act as N

象名词一样起作用

(6) To make or change into N

变成名词

(7) To send or go by N 用名词送去

（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音

（2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音 Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order Invert the verb and particle: p+v

动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序，动词小品词出现反转

1）Noun to verb 名词变动词 2）Adjective to verb 形容词变动词

this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word

class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation.

转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。

4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词

blends fall into four major groups:

is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are

called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或行囊词。 4.5 Clipping 截短法，删减法

four common types of clipping:

另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。

4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法 1. Front clipping 前删（aphaeresis ）

Back clipping 后删 (apocopy) 3. Front and back clipping 前后删( 4.

syncope 删词腰 5. Phrase clipping 删短语 1. head + tail 头＋尾 2. head + head 头＋头 3. head + word 头＋整词

4. word + tail 整词＋尾

Initialisms 首字母缩略词

Acronyms 首字母拼音词

1. Letters represent full words 字母代表所有词

2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word 字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分（Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 一个字母一个字母念。）

（Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.

首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。）

4.7 Back-formation 逆构法

back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。

(Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes. 通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式 Style: informal 非正式)

4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词

Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的

? 定义模式：it‘s the formation of new words by doing …(doing 是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change)

? 分类：

1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法（加：affixation ，减：clipping, back-formation ）

2)词间组合：整体组合：compound; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy

3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)

5 W o r d M e a n i n g 词义 5.1 Meanings of meaning

Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world.

词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。

Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Abstract nouns 抽象名词

Human nouns 人类名词 Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他 Adjectives 形容词 Reference 参照 Concept 概念 Sense 语感 names of people 人名 names of places 地名 names of books 书名 trade names 商业名称

意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。

Generally speaking, the meaning of ?meaning‘ is perhaps what is termed ?sense‘. Unlike reference, ?sense‘ denotes the relatio nships inside the language. Every word

that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说，?意义'的意义也许就是―语感‖ 。不像参照，―语感‖表示的是语言内部的关系。有意义

的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。

5.2 Motivation 理据

动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。

5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型 Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。

6 S e n s e R e l a t i o n s a n d S e m a n t i c F i e l d 语义关系和语义场

sense relations 语义关系

歧义

Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据：sounds suggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音

Morphological Motivation 形态理据：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合

Semantic Motivation 语义理据

Etymological Motivation

词源理据：

the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关

the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系

the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系 Grammatical Meaning

语法意义 Lexical Meaning 词法的意义 1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义 3. Affective meaning 情感意义 4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义

appreciative

褒义 pejorative 贬义 Conceptual Meaning

概念意义

Associative Meaning 联系意义

polysemy 歧义 homonymy 同音异义 synonymy 同义 antonymy 反义 hyponymy 上下位关系

Definition: the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。

6.1.1Two approches to Polysemy: 歧义的两个角度

6.1.2 Two Processes of Development: 发展的两个过程同音异义

Definition: words have different meanings but identical sounds or spelling 声音拼写相同意义不同。

6.2.1 Types of Homonyms

同音异义的种类 6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms

：changes in sound and spelling; Borrowing; Shortening

同音异义的起源声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短

6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants 同音异义词和歧义词的区别 diachronic approach. 历时的角度: growth and development 成长和发展

primary meaning 基本义----derived meaning 派生义

synchronic approach. 共时的角度: coexistence 共存

central meaning 中心义----sencondary meaning 次要义

(secondary ----sometimes dominant 有时占优势)

radiation 辐射型: center, every direction like rays;

independent; back to central meaning. e.g: neck (多个意思同时并存)

concatenation 连锁型: move away from first sense by shifts;

no connection with original meaning; Later meaning is related to preceding one.

eg. : treacle, candidate （剩下一个意思）

Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling

完全同形同音异义词

Homographs: identical spelling

同形异音异义词

Homophones: identical sound---most common

同音异形异义词

Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling

完全同形同音异义词

Homographs: identical spelling

同形异音异义词

Homophones: identical sound---most common

同音异形异义词

6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms ：create puns for desired effect --- humour, sarcasm, ridicule

同音异义词的修饰特点为预期的效果制造双关语——幽默，讽刺，嘲笑

6.3 Synonymy 同义词

6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词定义

同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。 6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类型

6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源 6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms

同义词的辨别

6.4 Antonymy 反义词

6.4.1Types of Antonyms （反义词的类型）

6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms

反义词的一些特征

Absolute synonyms 绝对同义词

Relative synonyms 相对同义词

Borrowing 借词

Dialects and regional English 方言和区域词 Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语

Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合

1. Difference in denotation 指示义不同

2. Difference in connotation 隐含义不同

3. Difference in application 应用不同 1. Contradictory terms 矛盾词语 2. Contrary terms 对立词语 3. Relative terms 关联词语 Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. 反义词在意义对立的基础上分类。 A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.. 多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词 Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 反义词的语义内涵相互区别。

Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.对立词语是分级的反义词，在程度上区别，因此每个都有它们自己的反义词。 To define the meaning 定义词义 To express economically the opposite of a particular thought 简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面 To form antithesis (form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together

将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶)

6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用

6.5 Hyponymy 上下位关系

上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义之中。

语义场

Definiton: word store is composed around a number of meaning areas. 围绕着一定数量的意义区域构成。

Function: words in each field define one another. 每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。

7 C h a n g e s i n W o r d M e a n i n g 词义的变化

7.1 Types of Changes 变化类型

7.2 Causes of Changes 变化原因 7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors

语言以外的因素 7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 语言因素：shortend phrase; borrowings; competition of native words; analogy （短语，借词，本地词竞争，类推）

8 M e a n i n g & C o n t e x t 意义和背景

superordinate terms 上位关系

subordinate terms 下位关系

extension 延展

narrowing 缩小

degradation 降级

elevation 升级

transfer 转移

1. Historical reason 历史原因

2. Class reason 阶级原因

3. Psychological reason 心理原因

8.1 Types of Context 背景类型

8.1.1Extra-linguistic Context —— non-linguistic situation, cultural background

非语言背景 ------非语言状况，文化背景

8.1.2 Linguistic Context

8.2 The Role of Context 背景的功能 8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 歧义的消除 8.2.2 Indication of Referents 指代物的说明 8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word-meaning 推导词义的线索供应

9 E n g l i s h I d i o m s 英语习语

Idiom —idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences ， which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Strictly speaking ，，idioms may include colloquialisms ，

catchphrases ， slang expressions ，proverbs ，etc.

习语由固定的短语和短句组成，它们是所涉及的语言所独有的，而且带有本族的文化和观念。严格来讲，习语是不能从其个体成分的文字意思立即理解其意义的，从广义上讲，习语可以包括口语词、时髦词、俚语、谚语等。

9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 习语的特点

9.1.1 Semantic Unity 语义的整体性

9.1.2 Structural Stability 结构稳定性

1. Lexical context 词法背景

2. Grammatical context 句法背景 Definition 定义

Explanation 解释

Example 例子

Synonymy 同义

Antonymy 反义

Hyponymy 上下位关系

Relevant details 相关的细节

Word structure 词语结构 1. The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. The structure is fixed. 首先，习语的组成部分成分不可替换。 2. The word order cannot be inverted or changed.习语的语序不能倒装或改变。 3. The constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to ，not even an article. 习语的组成成分不能删除或增加。 4. Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.很多习语在语法上是不可分析的。 5. the idomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of scale.习语的习语性是分等级的，而且可能 6.

最好从等级上来研究。 7.

The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms ，the more fixed the structure.习语的 8. 稳定性在于其习语性程度。

9.2 Classification of Idioms The standard of Classification of idioms is The criterion of ‘grammatical function‘.

习语的分类标准是语法功能的标准

9.3 Use of Idioms 习语的使用

Idioms nominal in nature （名词性习语） Idioms adjective in nature （形容词性习语）

Idioms verbal in nature （动词性习语） Idioms adverbial in nature （副词性习语） Sentence Idioms （句式习语）

Phrasal verbs 短语动词 Verb phrases 动词短语 Stylistic Features 语体色彩

Rhetorical features 修辞特征

Variation of idioms 习语的变化

Colloquialisms 口语词 Slang 俚语

Literary expressions 书面表达式

Phonetic manipulation 语音运用

Lexical manipulation 词汇运用

Figures of speech 修辞手法 Alliteration 头韵（法）

Rhyme 韵脚

Reiteration 重复（同义的重复）

Repetition 重复

Juxtaposition

（of antonyms ）邻接（反义词）

Simile 明喻

Metaphor 「n.暗语，隐喻」

Metonymy 「n.借代」

Synecdoche 「n.借代，提喻法」

Personification （拟人） Euphemism （委婉语） Replacement 替换 Addition or deletion 增词或减词

Position-shifting

移位 Shorting 缩略法 Dismembering 肢解

10 E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y 英语词典 10.1 Types of Dictionaries 字典的种类

10.2 Use of Dictionaries 词典的使用

10.3 Three Good General Dictionaries 三种最好的普通词典 10.3.1 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) New Edition (1987) 朗曼当代词典新版（1987）

10.3.2Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 柯林斯合作英语词典 10.3.3 A Chinese-English Dictionary (Revised Edition) (CED) (1995) 汉英词典（修订版）ced1995

Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries 单语和双语词典

Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries 语言和百科全书词典 Unabridged, Desk and Pocket 未删节版，案头和口袋词典 Specialized Dictionaries 特殊词典

Unabridged dictionaries 未删节词典

Desk dictionaries 案头词典 Pocket dictionaries 口袋词典 Choice of Dictionaries 词典的选择 Content of the Dictionary 词典的内容 Use of the Dictionary 词典的使用 Monolingual or bilingual 单语或双语 General or specialized 普通或特殊

British or American 英式或美式

Early or late 早期或最新

Spelling 拼写

Pronunciation 发音

Definition 定义 Usage 用法 Grammar 语法 Usage notes and language notes 使用信息和语言信息 Etymological information 词源信息 Supplementary matter 补充 Spelling 拼写 Pronunciation 发音 Definition 定义

Usage 用法

Clear grammar codes 清晰的语法代码

Usage notes 使用注解

Language notes 语言注解

Definition 定义

Extra column 额外栏

Usage examples 使用范例

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