美语发音视频教程完整版+笔记

Pronunciation Workshop

Instructor：Paul Gruber

Introduction：（01：17-02：27）

When you learned English as a second language, you kept many of the sounds and speech rules from your first language and you were continuing to use them when you speak English. This is what gives you an accent. You were using the sounds and speech rules from your native language instead of the sounds and speech rules of English. This program will show you and train you on how to use these sounds and speech rules correctly and showing you how to correctly form new sounds by changing the position of your tongue or changing the shape of your lips. These small changes are going to make very big changes in your speech.

How to Practice（02：35-03：15）

Speak slowly

Use a Loud Voice

Exaggerate Your Mouth Movements

What would you be doing is retraining the muscles of your mouth in your tongue to move in new ways, which will produce a new pronunciation patterns. These new speech patterns will slowly and eventually involve into your own spontaneous fast speech, but it is important that you start out going very slow.

The Key to Success（03：15-05：15）

Being aware of your errors

Recognizing mistakes when you hear them

When most Americans speak you will notice that we seem to open our mouth a lot and there is a great amount of mouth movements.

Arrangement of this program（05：15-05：45）

During the course of this program, I will begin by addressing consonant sounds and then later on we‘ll work with vowel sounds. Now vowel sounds, as you know, are A E I O and U, like ahh, ohh, eee, ehh, ihh and ooo. And consonant sounds are basically all the other letters‘ sounds, like b, ch, s, t, f, g, sh, w and of course, there are many many more sounds.

Session One（05：55-22:34）

1. Consonant R

2. Consonant W

R Tips（07：07-09：00）

Mouth and lips come tightly forward as if you would be saying the OO sound. Tongue moves back.

Now one way of checking if you‘re doing this correctly with your tongue is by actually putting your finger around an inch into your mouth while saying an R sound.

You should be able to take the tip of your finger and feel the tip of your tongue.

Practice (09:00-12:34)

R at the beginning of words (like Rock Rain)

Bringing your mouth forward and pulling your tongue back.

R at the end of words or after a vowel (like Car Far Air Poor)

Your tongue hasta pull back and also your lips close a little bit in the front. The R needs to be very strong and you need to close the word.

R in the middle of words(like Very Arrange Everyone)

Your tongue is back and your lips are coming all the way forward.

R Blends (12:34-14:10)

The ?R‘ is always the strongest sound of the blend.

Your lips come forward before you even say the word.

When the blend is at the beginning of a word, your mouth prepares for the R, by coming forward before you even say the word.

R blends at the beginning of words(Training Trust)

R blends in the middle of words（Subtract Waitress）

W Tips（similar to R）(15:34-17:42)

Practice first with OO.

Then go into OOOOOWAWAWA.

Remember, A W is always makes a W sound. It NEVER makes a V sound. Remember, the W sound is also at the beginning of the words One and Once.

Practice (17:43-19:24)

W at the beginning of words（like Why Which ）

W in the middle of words（like Always Away）

Don‘t forget to bring your mouth fo rward at the beginning of each word.

Q sounds (Q=KW) (19:24-20:18)

For example, the word Quick is pronounced with the K and the strong W sound. KWICK, like that.

Session Two (22:50-44:25)

1. Voicing

2. Consonant pairs

3. Consonant S

4. Consonant Z Voicing

Voicing is when your vocal cords are vibrating in your throat, producing a sound. All vowels are voiced. Some consonants are voiced, some are not. (24:35-26:23)

Paired Consonants: (26:23-29:11)

P&B T&D F&V SH&ZSH K&G S&Z

Consonant S & Consonant Z : (29:11-30:00)

The S consonant, made with the air going through your front teeth. /s/ the S sound is unvoiced.You just add voicing. What would the S sound become

/s/---/z/. It will become a Z sound/z/. So S has no voicing /s/, Z has voicing/z/. So we say the S sound and Z sound are also Pair Consonants. And this brings us to what I would like to cover today---S sounds/s/, Z sounds /z/and how they work in terms of word endings.

Three rules for S&Z endings (30:11-38:27)

Rule 1

If the last sound in a word is unvoiced, and you?re adding an S, well, then the S remains unvoiced, too.

Examples:

1 cup,

2 cups (the p in cup is unvoiced, so you just add an unvoiced s)

I break, he breaks

Rule 2

If a word ends in any of these sounds: s, z, sh, ch, or dg (j), when adding an S ending, add IZZZZZZ

Examples:

1 Page

2 Pages

I Raise, He Raises

Rule 3

If a word ends in a vowel sound (like the word Tree) or a voiced consonant (like the word Game), then when you add an S, continue the voicing throughout the entire word, and it should become a

voiced ZZZZ.

Examples:

1 Tree,

2 Treezzzz (correctly spelled Trees)

1 Day,

2 Days

I Fly, He Flies

Some common words where S?s are pronounced as Z?s (38:27-39:50) Is His As Was These Those Easy Because

Session Three (44:41-61:15)

1. The Unvoiced TH Sound

2. The Voiced TH Sound

3. THR Blends

4. Voicing the T Sound

The Unvoiced TH Sound (46:55-49:53)

Flat tongue protruding through your teeth. Maintain a steady air stream. Stretch out the TH sound.

Example:

Think of the word Thumb as having two beats

Th . umb

1 2

Unvoiced TH at the beginning of words(Thanks Thick)

Unvoiced TH at the middle of words(Anything Bathmat)

Unvoiced TH at the end of words(Bath North)

The Voiced TH Sound (49:53-53:05)

To make a voiced TH sound[e], you just need to add voicing to the unvoiced th sound. There?s the voiced TH. You should be able to feel the strong vibration in your throat and on your tongue[e].

Voiced TH at the beginning of words (The That)

Voiced TH in the middle of words (Clothing Mother)

Voiced TH at the end of words (Smooth Bathe)

THR Blends: the combination of TH sound and the R

sound (55:18-56:30)

Be aware that the R is the strongest sound of the blend and it?s louder than the TH.So when you say a word which begins with THR. First make the TH sound and then strongly push out the R.(Thread throw)

TH Exceptions (58:20-60:47)

Although the following words are spelled with a …TH?, they are pronounced as a T.

Thomas Thompson Theresa Thailand Thames Esther Thyme

Voicing the T Sound

If a T falls within two voiced sounds (usually vowels), the T becomes voiced like a D.

Examples: Water Wader (the whole word is voiced)

Better Bedder Butter Budder

Voiced T Practice

Betty bought a bit of better butter. But, said she, this butt er‘s bitter. If I put it in my batt er, it‘ll make my ba tter bitter.

Session Four(61:28-80:21)

1. Consonant ?F‘

2. Consonant ?V‘

3. The Unvoiced ?SH‘ Sound

4. The Voiced ?SH‘ Sound

Consonants F and V (62:40-63:39)

Consonants F and V are produced with contact of your upper teeth and lower lip. Think of it as biting your lower lip. Maintain a steady air stream.

They are both identical, except the F is unvoiced, and the V is voiced.

Fs and Vs are friction sounds and not that loud. So we stretch these sounds out a little bit, so they can be clearly heard.

Practice F and V (63:40-72:46)

The OF Exception

NOT OF. BUT OV.

The Unvoiced SH Sound (72:48-73:36)

To make the Unvoiced SH sound, bring your mouth and lips forward, teeth should be slightly apart. Produce air stream. Words beginning with SH begin with this sound. (So are the words Sugar, Sure, Chef and Chicago.)

SH practice (73:36-76:29)

The Voiced SH Sound [?] (76:29-77:00)

The Voiced SH sound is exactly like the SH except voicing is added. To produce this sound, first make a [?] sound and then you add voicing [?] --[ ?]-, like that. [?]. Now, for some people this may take a little bit of practice, you should feel the vibrations right here in your throat [?].

SH practice (77:00-78:31)

Usual(U→zshu→al) Put your hand on your throat and feel for the vibration in the second syllable U-ZSHU-AL.

Session Five (80:25-93:20)

1. Consonant L

L Tips: (81:05-83:05)

Your bottom jaw should be down and your mouth should be wide open.

Your tongue should RISE UP (independently of your jaw) and touch right behind your top teeth.

Produce the …L? sound by dropping and relaxing your tongue.

Practice “LA, LA, LA”, keeping your bottom jaw lowered and open while only raising your tongue.

Practice(83:05-87:48)

To produce an L at the end of a word, remember to slowly raise your tongue upward, towards your upper teeth, while keeping your bottom jaw as open as possible. The L sound comes from the tongue movement, not from the placement.

(Using your finger to push down on your bottom teeth to keep your jaw open, may be helpful for practicing.)

FL Blend (87:48-89:05)

Here we‘ re combining two sounds that we have already covered. The F sound and now the L sound. Don‘ t forget to first bite your lips for that F/f/, like that and then quickly push your tongue up and against your teeth for the L to creat the FL blend Fly

Comparing R and L(90:52-92:12)

Keep in mind when you‘ re producing an L, your tongue moves forward and up behind your tip. When you‘ re producing an R sound, your lips move forward but your tongue moves all the way back. Basically, the L and the R are completely opposite sounds.

L and R Combinations (92:12-93:02)

These words and phrases having an L sound and an R sound right next to each other. This forces you to make a clear L and then roll it right into a strong R. Example: Seal ring

Session Six(93:30-106:35)

1.Word Endings

Often people who speak English as a second language drop the endings or final sounds off their words, well, they do not pronunce the final sounds correctly. Make sure that the final sounds in your words come through clearly and fully. Don‘t drop off or shorten the endings!(94:12- 95:50)

Practice P/B/T/D ending (95:50-98:48)

Three rules for ED endings(98:48-103:10)

Many verbs that are in the past tense end in ED.

Rule 1

If a word ends in an unvoiced consonant, when adding ED, just add an Unvoiced T Example: Jump → jumped. (pronounced jump T)

Rule 2

If a word ends in a voiced consonant, add a Voiced D

Example: Rub → Rubbed Today I rub, yesterday I rubbed. (pronounced

rub-D)

Rule 3

If a word ends in a T or a D sound, we add a Voiced ID

Example: Lift → Lifted Today, I lift the ball. Yesterday, I lifted the ball.

Three Nasal Sounds: M N NG(104:09-106:15)

Try to say the M sound /m/ while closing off your nose. You see you can not do it. Because the M sound comes out of your nose. It‘s the nasal sound.Same thing with the NG sound-- [?]-- comes out of your nose. It‘s a combination of a N and a G and it‘s found at the ends of words, like Ri ng and Sing. And I want you to realize that there‘s not a /k/ K sound.

Session Seven (106.48-118:02)

1. CH sound [?]

2. The American J sound (DG)

3. Consonant H

Ch sound and J sound (107:37-109:24)

CH Unvoiced as in Ch-ur-ch, It‘s a combination of the T sound/t/ and the SH sound [?]. When you put these two sounds together, you get a [?]. It‘s an unvoiced sound.

American J Voiced as in J-u-dge, if you take this CH sound and you keep everything in your mouth the same, you just add voicing. It becomes an American J sound [?]. CH [?], unvoiced. J, voiced.

Practice(109:24-113:20)

Consonant H (113:28-114:12)

When an H is at the beginning of a word it is pronounced with a strong, loud air-stream. Practice: Ha... Ha… Ha.

Put your hand in front of your mouth for this exercise. You should be able to feel the airstream come out onto the palm of your hand.

Note that some words in English that begin with the letter W are also pronunced just like an H

Practice (114:12-117:09)

Session Eight (118:14-129:48)

1. American English Vowels

2. Vowel EE

3. Vowel I

American English Vowels (118:47-120:18)

There are five vowel letters in English: A E I O and U. But there are around 15 vowel sounds and some vowels have as many as 10 different spellings.

Vowel sounds are made by slightly changing the Size, Shape and the Tension of the muscle in your mouth, your tongue and your lips. A small change can produce an entirely different sound. Instead of giving you diagrams of tongue placement---how round your lips should be or how far you should open your mouth. I believe the best way to learn American vowels is by Ear Training. Listen carefully and repeat.

To help teach you the American vowel sounds, I‘ ll separate them to two groups: front vowels and back vowels. When your ton gue rises up in the front, it‘ s a front vowel. When your tongue rises up in the back, it‘ s a back vowel

Front Vowels: (From high to low)(120:18-123:50)

EE - I - AE - EH – A [ i:] [ i ] [ ei ] [ e ] [ ? ]

EE as in Heat

I as in Hit

AE as in Hate

EH as in Het (nonsense word)

A as in Hat

Heat - Hate - Het - Hat

Back Vowels: (From high to low) (121:45-122:59)

OO - Uh - Oh - Aw - Ah [ u:] [ u ] [ ?? ] [ ? ] [ ɑ ]

OO as in Boot

Uh as in Book

Oh as in Boat

Aw as in Bought

Ah as in Bot (nonsense word)

Boot - Book - Boat - Bought – Bot

Comparing Heat (EE) and Hit (I)(122:59-129:42)

Remember: Heat is high. Hit is lower.

EE Vowel Sound

Remember, smile and think high.

i vowel sound

Session Nine(130:00-144:42)

1. Vowel OW

2. Vowel AE

Vowel O (131:10-132:45)

The Hidden W: OWE, OWE, OWE, OWE, OWE

Woke and Wont(134:51-137:50)

Practice: WOWOWOWOWO

Woke：Whoa（W）+K

Won't：Whoa（W）+nt

Vowel AE (137:50-138:22)

This sound is a combination of two vowel sounds. You start with an A and then you glide up to an E. A—E, A—E. Notice how my mouth also closes a little bit at the end of the vowel A—E.

The 50 United States (Stressed sounds are in bold)(140:35-144:25) Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia

Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa

Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland

Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri

Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey

New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina

South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont

Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

Session Ten(144:52-154:18)

1. Vowel OO

2. Vowel UH

3. Vowel EH

OO Vowel Sound(146:08-146:37)

Bring your lips tight and forward

Double OO words that are pronounced as UH(148:18-149:19)

Food has a high vowel (OO)

Foot has a lower vowel (UH)

EH Vowel Sounds(151:51-152:12)

It‘ s made with the front of the tongue low.

Session Eleven(154:29-163:09)

1. Vowel A as in Hat

2. Vowel AU as in Out

3. Vowel AH as in Top

A Vowel Sound(155:20-155:49)

Your mouth has to be wide open.

AU Vowel Sound(156:47-158:34)

This is an important sound! If mispronounced, it can often make you misunderstood.

Begin this sound with the A sound as in hat…

Then, slide your mouth forward to form a small W sound.

Example: Downtown. DA –wn…TA – wn

Downtown Downtown

Are VS Our(159:59-161:02)

Are (Close with strong R sound, tongue retracts back.)

Are you going?

Our (Begin with the AU sound (A as in Hat), Then close your mouth and say Were.)

Our meeting is in one hour.

Pronounced as AU-WERE (The word Hour is also pronounced the same way).

Session Twelve(163:21-176:42)

1. Tongue Twisters

F, W, Voiced Z(164:49-165:46)

Fuzzy Wuzzy was a bear, Fuzzy Wuzzy had no hair. Fuzzy Wuzzy wasn‘t fuzzy, was he?

Voiced V (165:46-166:18)

Vincent vowed vengeance very viciously.

P (166:18-167:33)

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked.

If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers,

How many peppers did Peter Piper pick?

SH, S and Z(167:33-168:49)

She sells seashells by the seashore.

The shells she sells are surely seashells.

So if she sells shells on the seashore,

I‘m su re she sells seashore shells.

W, CH, and Final Consonants(168:49-169:54)

How much wood, would a woodchuck chuck,

If a woodchuck could chuck wood?

He would chuck, he would, as much as he could,

And chuck as much wood as a woodchuck would

If a woodchuck could chuck wood.

W(169:54-171:31)

Which witch, wished which wicked wish?

While we were walking, we were watching window washers wash Washington‘s windows with warm washing water.

If two witches would watch two watches, which witch would watch which watch?

R(171:31-172:05)

Roberta ran rings around the Roman ruins.

B, BR, and BL blends(172:05-172:39)

Bradley‘s big black bath brush broke.

Bradley‘s big black bath brush broke.

TH(172:39-174:15)

Tom threw Tim thirteen thumbtacks.

He threw three free throws.

There are thirty-three thousand birthdays on the third of every month.

The father gathered smooth feathers for Thanksgiving.

The sixth graders are enthusiastic about Jonathan‘s birthday.

GR, and GL blends(174:15-174:44)

Green glass globes glow greenly.

L, OO vowel(174:44-175:20)

Aluminum Linoleum, Aluminum Linoleum, Aluminum Linoleum,

Won‘t(175:20-175:58)

I would if I could! But I can‘t, so I won‘t!

Woke(175:58-176:31)

I woke, he woke, she woke, they woke. We all woke up.

Session Thirteen(176:53-190:10)

1. Phrase Reductions

2. Intonation Phrase

Phrase Reductions(177:37-181:42)

Phrase Reductions: in conversational English, words are often broken down or not fully pronunciated. Two and three words are sometimes squeezed together to creat easy-to-say phrases.

Going to try (gonna try)

I‘m gonna try to finish this book.

(gonna try)

Want to eat (wanna eat)

Do you wanna eat at seven o‘clock?

(wanna eat)

Have to start(hafta start)

I hafta start a diet tomorrow.

(hafta start)

Has to try (hasta try)

He hasta try harder.

(hasta try)

Got to leave (gotta leave)

I (very) gotta leave in fifteen minutes.

(gotta leave)

Ought to believe (oughta believe)

She （very）oughta believe what he is saying. (oughta believe)

Out of bed (outa bed)

I got outa bed when I heard the alarm clock.

(outa bed)

Did you go (Didja go)

Didja go to the store?

(Didja go)

Would he help (Woody help)

Woody help me move the furniture?

(Woody help)

Won‘t you play (Woncha play)

Woncha play one more song on the piano? (Woncha play)

Didn‘t you know (Didincha know)

Didincha know that she was coming home tomorrow? (Didincha know)

Is he (Izzy)

Izzy the one that called?

(Izzy)

What do you want (Whadaya_want)

Give it to me (GividaMe)

Gividame right （now）away.

(GividaMe)

Intonation (181:43-184:48)

English is a very musical language. As we speak our words and phrases go all the way up and then they come all the way down, much like the music does. In American English, words that carry the highest information of value in a sentence are given more emphasis with increase loudness—a higher pitch and sometimes a longer duration.

Asking questions: voice goes up at the end of a question(184:48-185:28) Syllable Stress (185:28-189:45)

Generally, two-syllable words have stress on the first syllable.

Two-Syllable Words stress 1st syllable

Comment

Two-Syllable Words stress 2nd syllable

Delete

Generally, three-syllable words have stress on the second syllable. Three-Syllable Words stress 2nd syllable

Reduction

Session Fourteen(190:22-203:10)

1. Putting it all together – Part I

2. The 10 Key steps towards Improvement

Photo album(192:40-193:52)

Keeping a family photograph album is a good way to save family memories for yourself and future generations of your family. Very old pictures can be taken to

a photo shop and reprinted so that they can be placed in an album. Be sure to write on the back of the picture any information you remember about the people in it. Also, write the date if you remember it. Looking at photo albums is a relaxing way to spend the day and it is a fun activity to share with family and friends. Your children, grandchildren and their children will appreciate your efforts too.

The Public Library(193:52-195:15)

Your library card can be your ticket to entertainment, current events and new ideas. Almost every city has a public library and there is no charge for a library card. Libraries have books about many subjects, but there are also other things at the library. These include books on cassette tape, videotapes, large print

b ooks, CD‘s, DVD‘s and magazines. Many have free programs in the afternoon or evening about travel, hobbies or other topics of interest. Some cities also have a bookmobile or traveling library, which brings the library right into your neighborhood.

John D. Rockefeller(195:16-196:43)

John D. Rockefeller did three amazing things. First, he acquired probably the greatest fortune in all history. He started out in life digging potatoes under the hot sun for four cents an hour. In those days, there were not half a dozen men in all the United States who were worth even one million dollars. Eventually, John D. managed to collect a fortune said to be anywhere from one to two billion dollars. And yet, the first girl he fell in love with refused to marry him.

The reason given was because her mother refused to allow her daughter to throw herself away on a man who had such poor prospects.

Stars(196:45-198:17)

How many stars can you see on a dark, clear night? You can see about three thousand（3,000）stars with your eyes alone. But keep in mind that you are viewing only part of the sky. If the whole sky were visible, you could count about five thousand (5,000) stars. If you look through a small telescope you might see as many as six hundred thousand (600,000) stars. Through the most powerful telescopes, astronomers can spot millions of stars. No one is sure exactly how

many stars there are altogether, but astronomers believe there are at least two hundred (200) billion, billion stars out in space.

The 10 Keys towards Improvement(198:17-202:58)

1. Practice and listen.

2. Do not leave off the endings of your words.

3. Make a list of frequently used words.

4. Open your mouth more when you speak English.

5. Don‘t be afraid to speak.

6. Read aloud in English for ten to 15 minutes every day.

7. Record your own voice and listen for pronunciation errors.

8. Watch the mouth movements of native speakers and try to imitate them.

9. Buy books on tape. Read along with the tape out loud.

10. Be patient.

Session Fifteen(203:22-225:40)

1.Putting it all together – Part II

A foreign student(205:11-206:28)

When a student from another country comes to study in the United States, he has to find out for himself the answers to many questions, and he has many problems to think about. Where should he live? Would it be better living in a dormitory or in a private room off campus? Should he spend all of his time studying, or should he take advantage of the many cultural and social activities that are offered? At first, he may not feel that he fits in with the American culture. He may not feel confident when he speaks. Little by little, however, he learns how to handle himself in various situations. Finally he begins to feel very secure and ?at home‘. Unfortunately, this long-awaited feeling doesn‘t develop suddenly. It takes time.

Volcanoes(206:28-207:53)

Volcanoes are holes in the Earth‘s crust which allow molten rock to escape from beneath. The molten rock, or lava, may flow out gently or it may be blasted high in the air with gas and ash in a violent explosion. There are eight hundred and fifty active volcanoes around the world. Do you know where these mountains of

fire are found? Three quarters of them are found within a zone called the ―Ring of Fire.‖ One edge of the zone stretches along the we st coast of the Americas from Chile to Alaska. The other edge runs along the east coast of Asia from Siberia to New Zealand. Twenty percent of these volcanoes are located in Indonesia. Other big groupings are in Japan, The Aleutian Islands, and Central America.

The Chinese Language(207:53-210:04)

Chinese is a most unusual language. It differs from English and most other major languages in that it has hundreds of different dialects. A person who lives in one section of the vast country of China, often cannot understand a fellow Chinese who lives in another section. These two major dialects are Cantonese and Mandarin. Cantonese is a southern dialect. Mandarin, a dialect that originated in northern China, is spoken by more Chinese than any other dialect.

Non-Chinese people often say that the Chinese seem to ―sing‖ their language. Chinese sounds as though it is sung, because many words are only one-syllable long and because the tone of voice changes for each word. As in English, many words have more than one meaning. The speaker‘s tone of voice indicates each word‘s specific meaning.

Even more fascinating than the variety of spoken sounds is the Chinese written language. It has no alphabet. Instead, it employs signs called ―characters.‖ Each spoken word in the language is represented by a separate character. Originally, the characters were drawings that depicted the meanings of the words, but over the years, they have simplified, and most no longer look like the things they represent.

The Supercontinent(210:04-211:49)

Around one hundred (100) to one hundred and fifty (150) million years ago, there may have been only one continent on our planet. At least that is what some earth scientists have decided after years of research. If you look at the map of the world carefully, you can see that the present-day continents could be thought of as the pieces to a gigantic jigsaw puzzle. In your imagination carefully put the pieces together to form the supercontinent. You will see that if

you took away the South Atlantic Ocean and pressed South America and Africa together they would fit very nicely. You could continue removing oceans and seas and put other parts of the world together quite easily until you get to those last two pieces of Australia and Antarctica. Scientists believe that the continents of Australia and Antarctica were once linked together. They may have split slowly off from the supercontinent and then separated from each other as recently as forty (40) million years ago.

The 50 Most Mispronounced Words in English(212:39-223:27)

Accounting

Argue

Actually

Available

Arrangements

Basically

Business

Calls

Complete

Continue

Contribute

Corporation

Differences

Directly

Exactly

Educational

Every

Exceptional

Familiar

Financial

Frustrating

General

Immediately

Inconvenience

Introduce

Irrational