语言学2

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.1 Speech production and perception

●Speech as the primary medium of language, writing, secondary

i.S peech has a history of at least 100,000 years, writing only about 6,000 years;

ii.C hildren learn to speak before they learn to write;

iii.T he blind can speak but the deaf cannot, sound channel important sight channel; iv.T ens of millions of people in the present world speak languages w/o written forms and have only oral literature.

●The importance of writing

i.O ral messages are subject to distortion, written messages remain exactly the same

whether read a thousand years later or ten thousand miles away;

ii.H uman memory is short-lived and the brain’s storing capacity is finite, which can be overcome with the help of writing;

iii.W riting can transcend time and space, the advent of films, radios, recorders and TV cannot supersede this function of writing, e.g. recording technology is studied and communicated through writing.

●articulatory phonetics发音语音学acoustic phonetics声学语音学auditory

phonetics听觉语音学

2.2 Speech organs

articulators: nasal鼻的;鼻音alveolar齿龈的;齿龈音palate颚(the roof of the mouth) velar软腭的;软腭音uvula小舌vocal folds=vocal cords声带vocal tract 声道

2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription

2.3.1 Segments and divergences

Segment音段Segments are obtained by dividing a continuous speech into successive discrete (离散) units, such as phonemes and morphemes. E.g. He

left. can be cut into he, left, or [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].

George Bernard Shaw(萧伯纳，乔治·伯纳德1856-1950) fish -- ghoti: enough, women, nation

Reasons for divergence between pronunciation and spelling in English:

i.More sounds than letters;

ii.Some sounds, esp. vowels, changed but English orthography remains highly conservative;

Great V owel Shift: A series of changes in late Middle English (Middle English 1066-1485), by which close long vowels became diphthongs and other long vowels shifted one stop loser. Thus, in the front series, [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ],

[ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ]; in the back series, [ ] > [ ], [ ] > [ ], [ ] >

[ ]. Often interpreted as a unitary phenomenon; hence as a classic example of

a chain shift.

It is in consequence of these and other changes that [ ] in name (formerly [ ]) is spelled a, or [ ] in shine (formerly [ ]) spelled i. They are also the main factor in the development of vowel alternations between long [ ] and short [ ] (in sane/sanity), long [ ] and short [ ] (divine/divinity), and so on.

In the 15th century, English vowels underwent a substantial shift known as the Great V owel Shift, e.g. the current diphthong [ ] in time, wide and dine was almost certainly a long [ ], while the vowel now pronounced [ ] as in green and meet was a long [ ], but short (or lax) vowels were not affected in the same way.

iii.Many loanwords. stomach[OFr stomaque

monsieur[OFr: my lord

2.3.2 Phonetic transcription

IPA国际音标=International Phonetic Alphabet The system of phonetic transcription developed and promoted by the International Phonetic Association(国际语音学协会). Consonants are classified by place and manner of articulation, the transcription of vowels is according to the cardinal vowel system. Its main principles are that there should be a separate symbol for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language.

Broad transcription宽式音标: The use of a simple set of symbols in phonetic transcription.

Narrow transcription窄式音标: The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. E.g. [ ] play, [ ] help; aspirated松气vs. unaspirated

不松气, diacritic: [ ] top, [ ] stop; common symbol [ ] vs.

unusual symbol [ ].

2.4 Consonants

The sound segments (speech sounds) are classified into consonants辅音/子音and vowels元音/母音. Consonants are produced by obstructing the airstream at some point of the vocal tract(声道). V owels are produced with the airstream passing through the vocal tract without obstruction. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.

2.4.1 Manners of articulation: The way in which a consonant is produced by the

speech organs.

(1)Stop (or plosive) 闭塞音(or破裂音;爆发音): [ , , , , , ];

(2)Nasal鼻音[ , , ];

(3)Fricative摩擦音: [ , , , , , , , , ];

(4)Affricate塞擦音: [ , ];

(5)Approximant无摩擦延续音: [ , , ];

(6)Lateral边音；旁流音: [ ];

(7)Tap or Flap一次接触音or闪音: tap in American English, [ ], [ ;

city letter water

(8)Trill颤音(sometimes called Roll滚音): [ ] Esperanto, Russian, Italian, Spanish,

and typical Scottish English (e.g. red, rye, also Indian English? a film about Gandhi) have alveolar trill [ ], French (e.g. Merci, grammaire fran?aise, Parlez-vous fran?ais? parler le fran?ais comme une vache espagnole), Dutch, and Portuguese have uvular trill [ ].

●Sibilants咝擦音: fricatives and affricates often behave in the same way: / , ,

, , , ].

●[ , , , ] have been rejected from English.

●Diacritic附加符号;变音符: e.g. [ , ], poison[ ],

poisson[ ], point[ ], fran?ais[ ]

2.4.2 Places of articulation: The classification of consonants according to the

different parts of the vocal organs involved in the course of production.

(1)Bilabial双唇音：[ , , , ]；

(2)Labiodental唇齿音：[ , ]；

(3)Dental齿音：[ , ]；

(4)Alveolar齿龈音：[ , , , , , , ]；

(5)Postalveolar后齿龈音：[ , , , ]；

(6)Retroflex卷舌音: A retroflex r-sound is typical of American English. e.g. car,

part,

(7)Palatal腭音: [ ]；

(8)Velar软腭音: [ , , ];

(9)Uvular小舌音: e.g. French [ ];

(10)P haryngeal喉头音；喉音: Arabic；

(11)G lottal喉音: [ ] fat[ ], pack[ ], button[ ], beaten[ ],

fatten [ ].

2.4.3 The consonants of English

Received pronunciation (RP): An accent of English identified by Daniel Jones （丹尼尔·琼斯1881-1967）as characteristic of educated speakers in the south of Britain.

There are 24 consonants in English.

In case two sounds share the same place and manner of articulation, they are distinguished by voiceless清音and voiced浊音in terms of vibration of vocal folds. E.g.

[ ] voiceless bilabial stop

[ ] voiced bilabial stop

2.5 Vowels

2.5.1 Four criteria of vowel description

?the part of the tongue that is raised: front, central, back;

?the height the tongue raising: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and

mid-low, e.g. [ ] and [ ] in French), low; or the mouth openness: close, close-mid, open-mid, open;

?the length or tenseness of the vowel: long vs. short, or tense vs. lax;

?lip-rounding: rounded vs. unrounded or spread.

English –lip-rounding: [ ] [ ] [ ]

French +lip-rounding: [ ] [ ] [ ]

2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels

Cardinal vowels: A set of vowels established by Daniel Jones as fixed and

unchanging reference points for the description of vowels in any language.

By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to

eight:

CV1 [ ], CV2 [ ], CV3 [ ], CV4 [ ], CV5 [ ], CV6 [ ], CV7 [ ], CV8 [ ];

and

CV9[ ], CV10[ ],CV11[ ], CV12[ ],CV13[ ], CV14[ ], CV15[ ],

CV16[ ] are secondary cardinal vowels obtained by reversing the

lip-rounding for a corresponding position.

Schwa / / (also shwa)非重读央元音: A short vowel produced with the tongue in the mid-central position in the mouth and lips unrounded. The phonetic symbol for a schwa is [ ], in English it frequently occurs in unaccented syllables, e.g. a- in / / about, -er in / / worker and in unstressed words in rapid speech, e.g. to in / / to make.

2.5.3 Vowel glides

Diphthong / /: A speech sound which is usually considered as one

distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves tow vowels,

with one vowel gliding to the other. E.g. in English / / in / / my is a

diphthong.

Triphthong / /: (in phonetics) a term sometimes used for a combination of three vowels. E.g. in English / / in / / fire is a diphthong.

Tense vowel紧元音: Articulated with more effort in the muscles of the vocal cords. E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ].

Lax vowel松元音: Articulated with less effort in the muscles of the vocal cords.

E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ].

2.6 Coarticulation协同发音: In continuous stream of speech, sounds show the

influence of their neighbors. The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive sounds is called coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音, e.g.

lamb, seat, soup, sweet;If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative coarticulation重复性协同发音, e.g. map.

2.7 Differences between phonetics and phonology

phonetics Phonology example sound making, grouping sound systems of human langs C V minimal pairs all possible sounds a selection of sounds in each lang

Chinese no [ , ]

physical properties meaning change caused by sound

[ ] in tea too[ ,

]

2.8 Phonemes and allophones

Minimal pair最小对立体: Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.

E.g. the English words bit and bet are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning

and phonemes [ ] and [ ].

Phoneme音位: The smallest sound unit in a language which can distinguish two words. E.g. the English words pan, ban, bin / /, / /, / /, / /. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels.

Phone音素;音子: A speech sound which is identified as the realization of a single phoneme. E.g. [ ], [ ], [ ] are phones which realize successive phonemes in [ ] peak.

Allophones音位变体: Different phones by which the same phoneme can be realized. E.g. [ , =] in peak and speak. The allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution in the sense that they never occur in the same context. Eg. + aspirate – aspirate

拼b’in pin 宾bin Wades Peking Tsinghua

spot, sports, stop, student, sky, skill, school

(1) / / [ =] / [ ] _________

[ ] elsewhere

(2) / / [ ] / ____________ V

[ ] / V ___________

Free variants自由变体: cup [ ] [ ]; either, direct, tomato, potato. 2.9 Phonological process

2.9.1 Assimilation同化: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the

characteristics of neighboring sound. Assimilation is often used synonymous with coarticulation. If a following sound influences a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation逆同化: e.g. can, tan, tenth, ninth, sink, mink, gooseberry, raspberry, cupboard, five pence, have to, used to, pan cake, sun glass. Progressive assimilation顺同化is the converse process, in which a

preceding sound influences a following sound, e.g. works, words, pears, writes, rides, eyes, laughed, loved, played.

2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules

Epenthesis插音;增音: The insertion of a vowel or consonant between sounds.

s ixths [ ], an apple, an hour: [ ] / [ ] _______V;Aime-t-il Marie?

2.9.3 Rule ordering

e.g. the pronunciation of English nominal plural forms

/ [-voice, C] ________ (Devoicing)

/ sibilant _________ (Epenthesis)

Epenthesis will always apply before Devoicing.

2.10 Distinctive Features

Distinctive Feature区别性特征: A phonetic feature which distinguish one phonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another. E.g. voice is a distinctive feature in English, since e.g. bit and pit, but voice is not in Australia.

The place features are divided into 4 values:

Labial唇音, Coronal舌面前音；舌尖音, Dorsal舌背音, Guttural颚音,

2.11 Syllables

Suprasegmental features超语段特征:

Suprasegmental: (in phonetics and phonology) units which extend over more than one sound in an utterance, the principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.

2.11.1 The syllable structure

Syllable音节: A phonological unit consisting of a vowel or other unit that can be produced in isolation. A syllable must have a nucleus音节核or peak(节)峰. We can divide a syllable into two parts, the rhyme (or rime韵;韵脚) and the onset节首辅音. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the consonants(s) after it is the coda节尾辅音;符尾. A syllable that has no coda is an open syllable, while

a syllable with coda is a closed syllable. The Greek letter σ (sigma) is used to

represent a syllable, e.g. clasp

σ

O R

N Co

2.11.2 Sonority scale响音阶

Why do we have clasp, help, lump, pray, quick, but not*lkaps, *hepl, *lupm, *rpay, *wqick?

Sonority: The inherent loudness of a sound. The degree of sonority of different

classes of sound affects their possible positions in the syllable:

Sonority scale: Most sonorous 5 V owels

4 Approximants: [ , , , l]

3 Nasals: [ , , ]

2 Fricatives: [ , , , , , , , , ]

Least sonorous 1 stop: [ , , , , , ]

The sonority of each sound gradually rises to a peak at the nucleus and then falls at the coda. The phoneme / / is exceptional, no explanation is found for [ ],

[ ], [ ], [ ].

cf. Dai et al. 1989: 25 Sequential rules: 1. If a word begins with a [ , , , l], then the next sound must be a vowel; 2. If three consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1) the first phoneme must be / / 2) the second phoneme must be / / or / / or / / 3)

the third phoneme must be / / or / / or / /. 3. The nasal / / never begins a word

in English, but it does in some Chinese dialects, e.g. Xiang dialect / / 伢means “boy”, 呀呀叫means “cry”, Cantonese?

2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle

Maximal onset principle最大节前辅音原则: When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. e.g.

[ . ] country.

2.12 Pitch and Tone

Pitch音调:音高: When we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds or groups of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or lower than others. This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listen is called “pitch”. e.g. the English question Ready? meaning “Are you ready?” The second syllable –dy sounds higher than the first one. The faster the vocal cords vibrate, the higher the pitch. The pitch of a sound depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal cords, which in turn is determined by the length of the vocal cords. In male adults the vocal cords are typically longer (about 23mm) than in women (about 18 mm). Therefore the sounds produced by men have a lower pitch than those by women. Pitch is a suprasegmental feature, whose smallest domain of application is the syllable. Different vibration rate of

vocal cords produce what is known in acoustic terms as different frequencies, and in auditory terms as different pitches.

Tone1声调: Def.1 Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes, that is, they may contribute to distinguish between different words. In this function, pitch variations are called Tones, and languages using tones to distinguish the meanings of words are called Tone languages.

Def.2 Height of pitch and change of pitch which is associated with the

pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the meaning of the

word. E.g. Mandarin Chinese, a tone language声调语言, makes a distinction

between four different tones:

(high level tone阴平) “mother” (Try mother mother)

(high rising tone阳平) “hemp”

(fall-rise上声) “horse”

（high falling tone去声）“scold”

Tone languages used in Vietnam, Thailand, West African, and Central American.

Tone2语调: also pitch movement. A change in pitch which affects the meaning and function of utterances in discourse. In a tone unit the syllable on which pitch movement begins is called the tonic or the tonic syllable. The tonic syllable is often the last prominent syllable in the unit. e.g. He’s DRUNK rising tone

surprised exclamation, He’s DRUNK, a falling tone, express disgust.

Intonation: When pitch, stress, and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

2.13 Stress

Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.

Fixed stress: the first syllable in Hungarian;

the last syllable in Turkish, French;

the penultimate (next to the last) syllable in Polish;

Free stress: English, Russian. Primary stress, secondary stress;

The Sound Pattern of English(Chomsky and Halle, 1968) long/tense and short/lax values of the five vowel letters: a, e, i, o, u

insane, prostate, explain obscene, esthete, convene divine, parasite, divide verbose, telescope, compose profound, pronounce, denounce. insanity, prostatic, explanatory

obscenity, esthetic, convention divinity, parasitic, division verbosity, telescopic, compositor profundity, pronunciation, denunciation.

Noting the patterns of such alternations, C&H propose various rules to account for

“tense” and “lax” vowels in appropriate environments. This means that a word like convene can be assigned an underlying form containing a vowel which is lax or tense according to its environment – lax, e.g. before two consonants (as in convention) and tense when no suffix is present (as in convene).

“strong” and “weak” clusters (C&H, 1968:29): A weak cluster is a sequence consisting of a short vowel followed by at most one consonant; a strong cluster consists either of a short vowel followed by at least two consonants or of a long vowel or diphthong followed by any number of consonants. Now this structural difference is relevant in a stress rule which applied to words such as the following, which end in a weak cluster and have stress on the penultimate（/ /倒数第二的）

syllable:

de ve lop de li ver in her it in hi bit ed it;

whereas those that end in a strong cluster have stress on the final syllable:

e lope com plete re veal a llow ex ist.

But morphological factors are also relevant – in particular certain suffixes have their own effect on the stress pattern. Thus the suffix –ance or –ence, although it ends in a strong cluster, does not attract the stress when added to the above words, i.e.

de liv er de liv erance

in her it in her itance

a llow a llow ance

ex ist ex ist ence.

On the other hand, the suffix –ion requires stress on the preceding syllable, which in some cases causes a shift of stress:

in hib it inhi bi tion

ed it e di tion

ded icate dedi ca tion

Furthermore if word-stress are intended to cover the patterning of compounds and phrases, they must account fort the English tendency to stress the first element of a compound but the final elements of a phrase.

Compounds with special meaning Ordinary phrase

n. + n.

beauty-spot (picturesque place)

bookworm (person)

cross-word (type of puzzle)

iron master (manufacturer)

paper-boy (boy selling newspaper) watermark (mark in paper) waterspout (column of water)

beauty spot (patch on the face)

book worm (insect)

cross word (angry word)

iron master (very severe master) paper boy (model made of paper)

water mark (level of water) water spout (spout for water)

a. + n.

blackberry (berry not necessarily black 黑莓)

blackbird (birds not necessarily black 乌鸫)

blackboard (classroom writing surface)

blackshirt (member of a fascist party黑衫党)

blacksmith (worker in iron)

bluebook (official publication)

blue stocking (pedantic woman)

dark-room (for photography)

greenhouse (a hot house)

greenstuff (green vegetable)

hot dog (sausage in a bread roll) redcoat (British soldier)

English teacher (who teaches English) English book (to teach English)

White House (president’s mansion) white paper (British govt. publication) yellow book (French govt. publication)

black berry black bird

black board

black shirt

black smith

blue book

blue stocking

dark room (one that is dark)

green house

green stuff (anything green)

hot dog (an overheated animal) red coat

English teacher (who is English)

English book (printed in English) White house

white paper

yellow book

RP differs from GA (General American); part of speech (grammatical function);

It has been said that the English and the Americans are two great people separated by one language. – Edward T. Hall

同英、美英语中少量的语法差异相比，发音差异就有规律多了。从这一点上说，我们可以断言两者之间的最大差别在于发音。-- P. Strevens

I.语音比较

1.元音

1）在GA中，凡有字母r，就有[ ]音：

fear hair poor fire flower far four work heard worker

murmur bitter

2）字母a在-ff, -lf, -m, -n, -ss, -sk, -st,-th等前面，RP读[ ]，GA读[ ]: staff half example dance advantage pass past task path

laugh clasp craft

3）RP的[ ]在GA中读得较短、较开，接近于[ ]：

bought caught all law talk walk water saw paw 4）RP的[ ]在GA中读得更开，且不圆唇，读作[ ]：

got doctor job stop lost not hot

5）RP的双元音[ ]，在GA中不一定都是双元音，在清辅音前读作[ ]，在音节末或浊辅音前要产生向[ ]滑动的过程，可注音为[ ]:

RP GA

gate [ ] [ ]

make [ ] [ ]

gay [ ] [ ]

grade [ ] [ ]

6）RP的[ ]，舌位等于[ ]的起始音，GA的[ ]，舌位较低，口较开，等于[ ]的起始音，故标作[ ]: get better well yes question

7）R前后都有元音时，RP在前面的元音与r之间加[ ]，而GA不加: hero (RP:[ ]; GA:[ ]) period experience Mary various

tourist plural curious during tiring flowery

8）RP的[ ]，在[ , , , , , , ]之后，GA多读作[ ]，但也有人读作[ ]:

new duty tube lure enthusiasm assume resume suit superior 9）GA中元音的鼻音化，美国干燥多变的气候引起鼻腔变化？元音的鼻音化往往出现在鼻辅音[]之前或之后，发音时，缩短元音，增强鼻音，如answer, me。

2.辅音（差别更少）

1）wh-在GA中除who，whom，whose, whole等与RP相同，都读[ ]，其他都读[ ]，亦有人读[ ]，但被认为不标准：

what which when where why white wheel whisper whale whether

2）RP中[ ]仅在音节末或辅音前读dark[ ]，GA中[ ]在元音之间和词首时也多读成[ ]:

follow (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) village develop silly light will belt

3）[ ]在元音之间时，GA把它发得很弱，近似[]，有轻微声带振动，用[ ]表示:

better (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) little water writing cf.

writer/rider latter/ladder whiter/wider

4）RP中[ ]和[ ]的使用不统一，如version，但以 ]为主，GA中则以[ ]为主: Version (RP: [ ], GA: [ ]) coercion Asia Persia

II.单词发音比较

1.元音不同

advertisement /RP: ; GA: /

ate /RP: ; GA: /

anti- /RP: ; GA: / (e.g. antibiotic /RP: ; GA: /)

address /RP: ; GA: /

been /RP: ; GA: /

borough /RP: ; GA: /

cadre /RP: ; GA: /

clerk /RP: ; GA: /

current /RP: ; GA: / cf. cut, furrow, hurry ego /RP: ; GA: /

either /RP: ; GA: /

epoch /RP: ; GA: /

idyll /RP: ; GA: /

leisure /RP: ; GA: /

lever /RP: ; GA: /

metaphor /RP: ; GA: /

missile /RP: ; GA: /

mobile /RP: ; GA: , / patriot /RP: ; GA: / progress(n) /RP: ; GA: / record /RP: ; GA: /

shone /RP: ; GA: /

thorough /RP: ; GA: /

tomato /RP: ; GA: / tournament /RP: ; GA: / vacation /RP: ; GA: /

z /RP: ; GA: /

zenith /RP: ; GA: /

2.辅音不同

erase (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

herb (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

grease (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

lieutenant (RP:[ ], GA:[ ]

schedule (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

suggest (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

thither (RP:[ ], GA:[ ])

3.省略弱化元音是RP一大特点，而GA中这些音较少省略，且常不弱化:

history /RP: ; GA: /

library /RP: ; GA: /

dictionary /RP: ; GA: /

ordinary /RP: ; GA: /

territory /RP: ; GA: /

nationalize /RP: ; GA: /

natural /RP: ; GA: /

literature /RP: ; GA: /

4.单词重音不同

1）主重音的差别

许多以-ary和-ory结尾的词中，RP的主重音在第二音节，而GA在第一音节： ancillary (GA) an cillary (RP) laboratory corollary capillary centenary

以-ate结尾的双音节词也有同样的差异：

dictate (GA) dic tate (RP) dilate donate migrate stagnate vibrate truncate

以-arily结尾的词中，GA的主重音从词首移到了词缀-arily的第一个音节上: ex traordi narily, neces sarily, arbi trarily, volun tarily, secon darily,

在RP中，这种移动偶有发生，但多属半开玩笑性质。

p.s. la bor atory (RP), lab oratory (GA) deb ris (RP), de bris(GA) gar age (RP) ga rage (GA)

2）次重音的差别

GA常把主重音放在词首，RP常把主重音放在后面，故GA的次重音往往在主重音后面，而RP的次重音在主重音前面。Too hair splitting…

5.复合词重音的差异

1）主重音的不同

RP和GA复合词的主重音很难找出一条规律，一般GA的主重音落在复合词的第一个成分，而RP的主重音落在复合词的第二个成分：

beef steak (RP) beef steak (GA) apple sauce (RP) apple sauce (GA) campfire elsewhere farmhouse fruitcake icecream inland tissuepaper meantime midday potluck slatepencil sweetpotato threadneedle workingman

相反地，下列复合词中，RP的主重音在复合词的第一个成分，而GA的在第二个成分：

back woods (RP) back woods (GA) base ball (RP) base ball (GA) collarbone dustproof (adj.) fingernail fireproof (adj.) fourfold grandaunt midsummer steamengine

2）次重音的差别

次重音差异有一个很明显的趋势，即GA的次重音往往在主重音后面，而RP的次重音在主重音前面。

6.语调差异

RP为阶梯型，即句子的音高(pitch)逐渐下降；

GA为波浪型，句中的重读音节的音高总是一样的。

(RP升调) （RP 降调）

（GA升调）

(GA降调)

Are you a student? (RP) Are you a student?

(GA)

I want to see a friend of mine. (RP) I want to see a friend of mine. (GA)

Would you mind mailing this letter for me? Would you mind mailing this letter for me?

I hope I remember to ask the barber not to cut my hair

too short.

I was born in Spain, but I’m a citizen of France. (GA)

sentence stress:

He bought a new car.

I didn’t \ tel ephone || because I was \ ang ry (the speaker did not telephone)

I didn’t telephone because I was V ang ry… (I tel ephoned, not because I was

angry, but…)