IAEA 50-C-QA-Quality Assurance for Safety in Nuclear Power Plants
Safety series
No.50-C-QA
IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS
Quality Assurance
for Safety in Nuclear Power Plants
A Code of Practice
CONTENTS FOREWORD
STATEMENT
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1General
1.2. Scope
1.3. Responsibility
2. QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMMES
2.1. General
2.2.Procedures, instructions and drawings
2.3.Management review
https://www.360docs.net/doc/d31405127.html,ANIZATION
3.1. Responsibility, authority and communications
https://www.360docs.net/doc/d31405127.html,anizational interfaces
3.3. Staffing and training
4. DOCUMENT CONTROL
4.1 Document preparation, review and approval
4.2 Document release and distribution
4.3Document change control
5. DESIGN CONTROL
5.1 General
5.2Design interface control
5.3Design verification
5.4Design changes
6 PROCUREMENT CONTROL
6.1. General
6.2Supplier evaluation and selection
6.3Control of purchased items and services
7 MATERIAL CONTROL
7.1 Identification and control of materials, parts and components
7.2Handling, storage and shipping
8 PROCESS CONTROL
9 INSPECTION AND TEST CONTROL
9.1.Programme of inspection
9.2.Test programme
9.3.Calibration and control of measuring and test equipment
9.4.Indication of inspection, test and operating status
10.NON-CONFORMANCE CONTROL
10.1.General
10.2.Non-conformance review and disposition
11.CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
12.RECORDS
12.1.Preparation of quality assurance records
12.2.Collection, storage and preservation of quality assurance records
13.AUDITS
13.1.General
13.2.Scheduling
FOREWORD
by the Director General
The demand for energy is continually growing, both in the developed and the developing countries. Traditional sources of energy such as oil and gas will probably be exhausted within a few decades, and present world-wide energy demands are already overstraining present capacity. Of the new sources nuclear energy, with its proven technology, is the most significant single reliable source available for closing the energy gap that is Iikely, according to the experts, to be Upon us by the turn of the century.
During the past 25 years, 19 countries have constructed nuclear power plants. more than 200 power reactors are now in operation, a further 150 are planned, and, in the longer term, nuclear energy is expected to play an increasingly important role in the development of energy programmes throughout the world.
Since its inception the nuclear energy industry has maintained a safety record second to none. Recognizing the importance of this as aspect of nuclear power and wishing to ensure the continuation of this record, the International Atomic Energy Agency established a wide-ranging programme to provide the Member States with guidance on the many aspects of safety associated with thermal neutron nuclear power reactors. The programme, at present involving
Preparation and publication of about 50 books in the form of Codes of Practice and Safety Guides, has become known as the NUSS programme (the letters being an acronym for Nuclear Safety Standards). The publications are being produced in the Agency’s Safety Series and each one will be made available in separate English, French, Russian and Spanish versions. They will be revised as necessary in the light of experience to keep their contents up to date.
The task envisaged in this programme is a considerable and taxing one, entailing, and numerous meetings for drafting, reviewing, amending, consolidating and approving the documents. The Agency wishes to thank all those Member States that have so generously provided experts and material, and those many individuals, named in the published Lists of Participants, who have given their time and efforts to help in implementing the programme. Sincere gratitude is also expressed to the International organizations that have participated in the work.
The Codes of Practice and Safety Guides are recommendations issued by the Agency for use by Member States in the context of their own nuclear safety requirements. A Member State wishing to enter into an agreement with the Agency for the Agency’s assistance in connection with the siting, construction, commissioning, operation or decommissioning of a nuclear power plant will be required to follow those parts of the Codes of Practice and Safety Guides that
Pertain to the activities covered by the agreement. However, it is recognized that
the final decisions and legal responsibilities in any licensing procedures always rest
with the Member State.
The NUSS publications presuppose a single national framework within which the various parties, such as the regulatory body, the applicant/licensee and the supplier or manufacturer, perform their tasks. Where more than one Member State is involved, however, it is understood that certain modifications to the procedures described may be necessary in accordance with national practice and with the relevant agreements concluded between the States and between the various organizations concerned.
The Codes and Guides are written in such a form as would enable a Member
State, should it so decide, to make the contents of such documents directly applicable to activities
under its jurisdiction. Therefore, consistent with accepted
Practice for codes and guides, and in accordance with a proposal of the senior
Advisory Group, “shall” and “should” are used to distinguish for the potential user between a firm requirement and a desirable option.
The task of ensuring an adequate and safe supply of energy for coming generations, and thereby contributing to their well-being and standard of Iife, is a
matter of concern to us all. It is hoped that the publication presented here, together with the others being produced under the aegis of the NUSS programme, will be of use in this task.
STATEMENT
By the Senior Advisory Group
The Agency’s plans for establishing Codes of Practice and Safety Guides for Nuclear power plants have been set out in IAEA document GC(XVIII)/526/Mod.l.
The programme, referred to as the NUSS programme, deals with radiological safety and is at present limited to land-based stationary plants with thermal neutron reactors designed for the production of power. The present publication is brought out within this framework.
A Senior Advisory Group (SAG), set up by the Director General in September 1974 to implement the programme, selected five topics to be covered by Codes of practice and drew up a provisional list of subjects for Safety Guides supporting the five Codes. The SAG was entrusted with the task of supervising, reviewing and advising on the project at all stages and approving draft documents for onward transrnission to the Director General. One Technical Review Committee (TRC), composed of experts from Member States, was created for each of the topics covered by the Codes of Practice.
In accordance with the procedure outlined in the above-mentioned IAEA document, the Codes of Practice and Safety Guides, which are based on documentation and experience from various national systems and practices, are first
drafted by expert working groups consisting of two or three experts from Member
States together with Agency staff members. They are then reviewed and revised by the appropriate TRC. In this undertaking use is made of both published and unpublished material, such as answers to questionnaires, submitted by Member States.
The draft documents, as revised by the TRCs, are placed before the SAG. After acceptance by the SAG, English, French, Russian and Spanish versions are sent to Member States for comments. When changes and additions have been made by the TRCs in the light of these comments, and after further review by the SAG, the drafts are transmitted to the Director General, who submits them, as and when appropriate, to the Board of Governors for approval before final publication.
The five Codes of Practice cover the following topics:
Governmental organization for the regulation of nuclear power plants
Safety in nuclear power plant siting
Design for safety of nuclear power plants
Safety in nuclear power plant operation
Quality assurance for safety in nuclear power plants.
These five Codes establish the objectives and minimum requirements that should be fulfilled to provide adequate safety in the operation of nuclear power plants.
The Safety Guides are issued to describe and make available to Member States acceptable methods of implementing specific parts of the relevant Codes of Practice. Methods and solutions varying from those set out in these Guides may be acceptable, if they provide at least comparable assurance that nuclear power plants can be operated without undue risk to the health and safety of the general public and site personnel. Although these Codes of Practice and Safety Guides establish an essential basis for safety, they may not be sufficient or entirely applicable. Other safety documents published by the Agency should be consulted as necessary.
In some cases, in response to particular circumstances, additional requirements may need to be met. Moreover, there will be special aspects which have to be assessed by experts on a case-by-case basis.
Physical security of rissile and radioactive materials and of a nuclear power plant as a whole is mentioned where appropriate but is not treated in detail.
Non-radiological aspects of industrial safety and environmental protection are not explicitly considered.
When an appendix is included it is considered to be an integral part of the document and to have the same status as that assigned to the main text of the document.
On the other hand annexes, footnotes, lists of participants and bibliographies are only included to provide information or practical examples that might be helpful to the user. Lists of additional bibliographical material may in some cases be available at the Agency.
A list of relevant definitions appears in each book,
These publications are intended for use, as appropriate, by regulatory bodies and others concerned in Member States. To fully comprehend their contents, it is essential that the other relevant Codes of Practice and Safety Guides be taken into account.
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1General
This Code of Practice provides the principles and objectives to be adopted as regards safety when establishing both a satisfactory overall quality assurance programme for a nuclear power plant and also separate quality assurance programmes for each of the constituent areas of activity (e.g. design, manufacturing, Construction, commissioning, operation). The principles to be followed in each Case, for each type of programme, are the same.
The establishment and implementation of a quality assurance programme for a nuclear power plant are essential. However, it shall always be recognized that the basic responsibility for achieving quality in performing a particular task (e.g. in design, in manufacturing, in commissioning, in operation) rests with those assigned the task and not with those seeking to ensure by means of verification that it has been achieved.
Quality assurance is an essential aspect of“good management”. Good management contributes to the achievement of quality through thorough analysis of the tasks to be performed, identification of the skills required, the selection and training of appropriate personnel, the use of appropriate equipment, the creation of a satisfactory environment in which activity can be performed and, as already noted, a recognition of the responsibility of the individual who is to perform the task. Briefly stated, then, a quality assurance programme shall provide for a disciplined approach to all activities affecting quality, including, where appropriate, verification that each task has been satisfactorily performed and that necessary corrective actions have been implemented. It shall also provide for production of documentary evidence to demonstrate that the required quality has been achieved.
The manner in which the principles described in this document are implemented, both at the overall plant level and at the constituent activity levels, will vary from country to country and variations will be due to such considerations as regulatory requirements, the general organization of industry, and the degree of sophistication and experience of the technical organizations involved in providing and operating the nuclear power plant. In any event, the basic intent of the principles shall be kept in mind at all times and the detailed implementation procedures shall be arranged accordingly.
The Code of Practice forms part of the Agency’s programme, referred to as the NUSS programme, for establishing Codes of Practice and Safety Guides relating to land-based stationary thermal neutron power plants, The Guides listed in Section 5 0f the Provisional List of NUSS Programme Titles, printed at the end of this publication, will be of assistance in implementing the present Code.
1.2. Scope
The document provides the principles and objectives for the establishment and implementation of a quality assurance programme during design, manufacture, construction, commissioning and operation of structures, systems and components important to safety. They apply to activities affecting quality of items, such as designing, purchasing, fabricating, manufacturing, handling, shipping, storing, cleaning, erecting, installing, testing, commissioning, operating, inspecting, maintaining, repairing, refueling, modifying and decommissioning. They are applicable by all those responsible for the power plant, by plant designers, suppliers, architect engineers, plant constructors, plant operators and other organizations participating in activities
affecting quality.
1.3. Responsibility
In its responsibility for ensuring the health and safety of the public, the Government of the IAEA Member State should have established a general, legal framework (see the Agency’s Safety Series No.50-C-G,“Governmental Organization for the Regulation of Nuclear Power Plants: A Code of Practice”), Within this framework should be the requirement that an effective, overall quality assurance pogramme be established.
The organization having overall responsibility for a nuclear power plant shall also be responsible for the establishment and implementation of the overall quality assurance programme for the complete plant. This organization may delegate to assurance programme for the complete plant. This organization may delegate to other organizations the work of establishing and implementing all, or a part, of the programme but shall retain responsibility for the effectiveness of the overall programme, without prejudice to the contractors’ obligations and/or legal responsibilities.
2. QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMMES
2.1. General
An overall quality assurance programme shall be established consistent with the requirements contained in this Code of Practice as an integral part of the nuclear power plant project. The overall programme shall provide for control of the constituent activities associated with a nuclear power plant, such as design, construction, manufacturing, commissioning and operation. The control of each constituent activity shall also be consistent with this Code of Practice.
Management in the overall and constituent areas of activity shall provide for effective implementation of the quality assurance programmes consistent with the time schedules for accomplishing project activities, including the procurement of materials for long-delivery items.
All programmes shall define the organizational structure within which the quality assurance activities are to be planned and implemented and shall clearly delineate the responsibility and authority of the various personnel and organizations involved.
The establishment of the programmes shall include consideration of the technical aspects of the activities to be performed. The programmes shall contain provisions to ensure identification of, and compliance with, requirements of appropriate recognized engineering codes, standards, specifications and practices.
Items, services and processes to which the quality assurance programmes will apply shall be identified. Appropriate methods or levels of control and verification shall be assigned to those items, services and processes. All programmes shall provide control and verification over activities affecting the quality of the identified items to an extent consistent with their importance to safety.
All programmes shall provide suitably controlled conditions for the accomplishment of activities affecting quality. This includes appropriate environmental conditions, appropriate equipment and skills to attain the required quality.
All programmes shall provide for training of personnel performing activities affecting quality.
All programmes shall be subject to regular evaluation and updating.
All programmes shall state the languages used for documentation. Measures shall be established to ensure that persons performing the quality assurance function have adequate knowledge of the language in which the documentation is written. Translations of the documentation shall be reviewed by competent persons. Verification of conformance to the original is necessary.
2.2Procedures, instructions and drawings
All programmes shall provide that the activities affecting quality are accomplished in accordance with written in procedures, instruction or drawings of a type appropriate to the circumstances. Instructions, procedures and drawings shall include appropriate quantitative and/or qualitative acceptance criteria for determining that important activities have been satisfactorily accomplished.
Procedures for implementing the quality assurance programmes on a planned and systematic basis for different phases of the nuclear power project shall be developed and documented by the organization performing the constituent activities. The procedures shall be periodically reviewed and updated as necessary to ensure adequate coverage of those activities.
2.3Management review
All programmes shall provide for the review at appropriate intervals by management of organizations participating in the programme, of the status and adequacy of the part of the quality assurance programme for which they have designated responsibility. Corrective action shall be taken when programme deficiencies are discovered.
3. ORGANIZATION
3.1. Responsibility, authority and communications
A documented organizational structure, with clearly defined functional responsibilities, levels of authority and lines of internal and external communication for management, direction, and execution of the quality assurance programme shall be established. The organizational structure and functional assignments shall recognize that execution of a quality assurance programme involves both performers and verifiers and is not the sole domain of a single group. The organization’s structure and the functional assignments shall be such that:
（a）attainment of quality objectives is accomplished by those who have been assigned responsibility for performing the work; This may include examination, checks and inspections of the work by the individuals performing the work
(b) When verification of conformance to established requirements is necessary it is carried out by those who do not have direct responsibility for performing the work.
The authority and duties of persons and organizations responsible for quality assurance performance and verification shall be delineated in writing. The persons and organizations performing the quality assurance functions of
(a) Ensuring that an appropriate quality assurance programme is established and effectively executed, and
(b) Verifying that activities have been correctly performed
shall have sufficient authority and organizational freedom to identify quality problems: to initiate, recommend or provide solutions; and, where necessary, to initiate actions to control further processing, delivery or installation of an item which is non-conforming, deficient or unsatisfactory, until proper disposition has been achieved.
Such persons and organizations performing quality assurance functions shall report to a management of high enough level to ensure that this required authority and organizational freedom, including sufficient independence from cost and schedule considerations, are provided. Because of the many variables involved, such as the number of personnel, the type of activity being performed, and the location or locations where activities are performed, the organizational structure for executing the quality assurance programme may take various forms, provided that the persons and organizations assigned the quality assurance functions have this required authority and organizational freedom. Irrespective of the organizational structure, the individual or individuals assigned the responsibility for ensuring effective execution of any portion of the quality assurance programme at any location where activities affecting quality are being performed shall have direct access to such levels of management as may be necessary to achieve effective implementation of the quality assurance programme.
3.2Organizational interfaces
Where multiple organizational arrangements exist, the responsibility of each organization shall be clearly established and interfaces and co-ordination among organizations ensured by appropriate measures. Provision shall be made for communication among organizations and organizational groups participating in activities affecting quality. The communication of essential! Information shall be by means of appropriate documentation. The type of documents shall be identified and a distribution list should be provided.
3.3. Staffing and training
Plans shall be developed for selecting staff and training personnel to perform activities affecting quality. Plans shall reflect the schedule of activity so as to allow adequate time for assigning or selecting, and training, required personnel.
All personnel responsible for performing activities affecting quality shall be qualified on the basis of general education, experience and proficiency required for performing the specific assigned tasks. Training programmes and procedures shall be established to ensure that suitable proficiency is achieved and maintained.
As appropriate, the accomplishment and maintenance of proficiency shall be marked by the issue of a written statement, such as a certificate.
4. DOCUMENT CONTROL
4.1 Document preparation, review and approval
The preparation, review, approval and issue of documents essential to the performance and verification of the work, such as instructions, procedures and drawings, shall be subject to control.
The control measures shall include the identification of all individuals or organizations responsible for preparing, reviewing, approving and issuing documents related to activities affecting quality. The reviewing and approving organization or individuals shall have access to pertinent background information upon which to base the review or approval.
4.2 Document release and distribution
A document release and distribution system hall be established, utilizing Up-to-date distribution lists. Measures shall be provided for ensuring that those participating in an activity are aware of and use appropriate and correct documents for performing the activity.
4.4Document change control
Changes to documents shall be subject to review and approval in accordance with documented procedure. The reviewing organizations shall have access to pertinent background in formation upon which to base their approval and shall have an adequate understanding of the requirements and intent of the original document. Changes to documents shall be reviewed and approved either by the same organizations that performed the original review and approval or by other organizations that have been specifically designated. Timely information on document revision and its actual status shall be promptly relayed to all affected persons and organizations to preclude the use of outdated and inappropriate documents.
5. DESIGN CONTROL
5.1 General
Control measures shall be established and documented to ensure that applicable specified design requirements, such as regulatory requirements, design bases, codes and standards are correctly translated into specifications, drawings, procedures or instructions. They shall include provisions to ensure that applicable quality standards are specified and stated in design documents. Changes and deviations from specified design requirements and quality standards shall be controlled. Measures shall also be established for the selection, and for the review for suitability of application, of any materials, parts, equipment and processes that are essential to the function of the structure, system or component.
Design control measures shall be applied to items such as the following:
radiation protection; physics and stress analysis; thermal, hydraulic, seismic and accident analysis;*compatibility of materials; accessibility for in-service inspection, maintenance and repair; and delineation of acceptance criteria for inspection and tests.
Design activities shall be documented to permit adequate evaluation by technical personnel other than those performing the original design.
5.2Design interface control
External and internal interfaces between organizations and organizational units performing the designs shall be identified in writing. Responsibility for each organization and organizational unit shall be defined in sufficient detail to cover the preparation, review, approval, release, distribution and revision of documents involving interfaces. Methods shall be established for communicating design information, including changes, across the design interfaces. The information communication shall be documented and controlled.
5.3 Design verification
Design control measures shall provide for verifying the adequacy of design, such as by the performance of design reviews, by the use of alternative calculation methods, or by the performance of a suitable testing programme. Design verification shall be performed by individuals or groups other than those who performed the original design. Verification methods to be applied shall be identified by a responsible organization and design verification results shall be documented to the extent specified.
Where a test programme is used to verify the adequacy of a specific design feature in lieu of other verifying or checking processes, it shall include suitable qualification testing of a prototype unit under the most adverse conditions for the specific design features being verified. Where testing cannot be carried out under the most adverse design conditions, testing is permissible under other conditions if the results can be extrapolated to the most adverse design conditions and if they can verify the adequacy of a specific design feature
5.4Design changes
Documented procedure shall be provided for effecting design changes, including field changes. The technical impact of changes shall be carefully considered and required actions documented. The changes shall be subject to the same design control measures as those applied to the original design.
Change documents shall be reviewed and approved by the same groups or organizations responsible for review and approval of the original design documents, unless other organizations are specifically designated. This designation of alternative organizations shall be conditional on their having access to pertinent background information, on their demonstrating competence in the specific design area of concern, and on their having an adequate understanding of the original design requirements and intent. Information concerning the changes shall be transmitted to all affected persons and organizations.
6PROCUREMENT CONTROL
6.1. General
Measures shall be established and documented to ensure that applicable regulatory requirements, design bases, standards, specifications and other requirements necessary to assure adequate quality are included or referenced in the documents for procurement of items and services.
Procurement requirements for assuring quality shall include, but need not be limited to, the following, as applicable:
(a)A statement of the scope of the work to be performed by the supplier
(b)Technical requirements specified by reference to documents such as codes, standards, regulations, procedures, instructions and specifications, including revisions thereto that describe the items or services to be performed
(c) Test, inspection and acceptance requirements, and any special instructions and requirements related to these
(d)Provisions for access to plant facilities and records for the purpose of source inspection and audit when the need for such inspection and audit has been determined
(e)Identification of quality assurance requirements and the elements of the programme applicable to the items or services procured. Not all suppliers need to have a quality assurance programme which complies with all the elements of this Code. To the extent necessary, the procurement requirements shall require contractors or subcontractors to provide a quality assurance programme consistent with the pertinent provisions of the Code
(f)Identification of documentation required, such as instructions, procedures, specifications, inspection and test records, and other quality assurance records to be prepared and submitted for review or approval by the purchaser
(g)Provisions for controlled distribution, retention, maintenance and disposition of quality assurance records
(h)Requirements for reporting and approving disposition of nonconformance
(i)Provisions for extending applicable requirements of procurement documents to lower-tier sub-contractors and suppliers, including purchaser’s access to facilities and records (j)Provisions for specifying the timing of the submission of documents.
6.2Supplier evaluation and selection
A basic consideration in the selection of suppliers shall be the supplier’s evaluated capability to provide items or services in accordance with the requirements of the procurement documents. Supplier evaluation includes, as appropriate:
(a)The use of historical quality performance data of similar procurement actions
(b)The use of supplier’s current quality assurance records supported by documented quantitative or qualitative information that can be objectively evaluated
(c)Source evaluation of supplier’s technical capability and quality system
(d)Evaluation by selective product samples.
6.3Control of purchased items and services
Purchased items and services shall be subject to control to assure the conformance to procurement documents. The control consists of measures such as objective evidence of quality furnished by the contractors, inspection and audit at the source, and examination of the product upon delivery.
If necessary, samples of material as specified shall be retained for a specific time at an agreed location and controlled to provide means for further examination.
Documentary evidence that purchased items conform to procurement documents shall be available at the nuclear plant site before installation or use. This evidence shall be sufficient to identify all requirements met by the purchased items. This documentary evidence may take the form of a written certificate of conformance which identifies the requirements met by the item, provided that the validity of such certifications can be verified.
7MATERIAL CONTROL
7.1 Identification and control of materials, parts and components
Measures shall be established for the identification and control of items, including partially fabricated assemblies, as required throughout fabrication, erection, installation and use. These measures ensure that identification of the item is maintained, throughout fabrication, erection, installation and use, by batch number, part number, serial number or other appropriate means, either on the item or records traceable to the item, as required. The required documentation shall be available for items as they proceed through the construction process.
Physical identification shall be used to the maximum extent possible. Where physical identification is either impractical or insufficient, physical separation, procedural control or other appropriate means should be employed to maintain identification. These identification and control measures shall be designed to prevent the use anywhere of incorrect or defective material, parts and components.
Where identification marking is employed, the marking shall be clear, unambiguous and indelible, and shall be applied in such a manner as not to affect the function of the item. Marking shall not be hidden by surface treatment or coatings, unless other means of identification are substituted.
7.2Handling, storage and shipping
Measures shall be established and documented to control handling, storage and shipping. These shall include cleaning, packing and preservation of material and equipment in accordance with established instructions, procedures or drawings to prevent damage, deterioration or loss. When necessary for particular items, special coverings, special handling equipment and special protective environments shall be specified and provided and their existence verified.
8PROCESS CONTROL
Processes affecting quality such as used in design, construction, fabrication, testing, commissioning and operation of a power plant shall be controlled in accordance with specified requirements. Where required by applicable codes, standards, specifications, criteria or other special requirements, measures shall be established and documented to ensure that these processes are accomplished by qualified personnel, using qualified procedures and equipment. For processes not covered by available standards, or where the quality requirements exceed the requirements of the existing standards, the necessary qualification of personnel, procedures or equipment shall be defined.
9INSPECTION AND TEST CONTROL
9.1Programme of inspection
To verify conformance to the documented instructions, procedures and drawings a programme for inspection of items and services and the activities affecting their quality shall be established and executed by or for the organization performing these activities. Such inspection shall be performed by individuals other than those performing the activities being inspected. Inspections shall be performed for each work operation where necessary to assure quality.
The programme shall provide indirect control by monitoring of the processing methods, equipment and personnel if, for example, inspection of processed items is impossible or if
additional process monitoring is required. Both inspection and process monitoring shall be provided when control is inadequate without both.
Hold-points beyond which work shall not proceed without the approval of a designated organization, if such inspection or witnessing of the inspection is required, shall be indicated in appropriate documents. Such approval shall be documented before the continuation of work beyond the designated hold-point.
A programme for required in-service inspection of completed systems, structures and components shall be planned and executed, and the results shall be evaluated against base-line data.
9.2Test programme
A test programme shall be established to ensure the identification, performance and documentation of all testing required to demonstrate that the structures, systems and components will perform satisfactorily in service. The test programme shall cover all required tests, and include, as appropriate, procedure and equipment qualification tests, prototype qualification tests, proof tests before installation, pre-operational and start-up tests, and operational tests.
Testing shall be performed in accordance with written test procedures which incorporate the requirements and acceptance limits specified in design documents, and include provisions for assuring that prerequisites for a given test have been met and that the test is performed under suitable environmental conditions by appropriately trained personnel using properly calibrated instrumentation. Test results shall be documented and evaluated to assure that test requirements have been satisfied.
9.3Calibration and control of measuring and test equipment
Measures shall be established to ensure that tools, gauges, instruments, and other inspection, measuring and test equipment and devices used in determining conformance to acceptance criteria are of the proper range, type, accuracy and precision.
Testing and measuring devices used in activities affecting quality shall be controlled, calibrated and adjusted at specified intervals or before use to maintain accuracy within necessary limits. When deviations beyond prescribed limits are detected, an evaluation shall be made of the validity of prevents measurements and tests, and acceptance of tested items reassessed. Controls shall be established to assure proper handling, storing and use of calibrated equipment.
9.4Indication of inspection, test and operating status
Test and inspection status of individual items of the nuclear power plant shall be identified by the use of markings, stamps, tags, labels, routing cards, inspection records, physical location or other suitable means that can indicate the acceptability or non-conformance of items with regard to tests and inspections performed. The identification of the inspection and test status shall be maintained as necessary throughout manufacturing, installation and operation of the item to ensure that only items that have passed the required inspection and test are used, installed or operated.
Measures shall also be established for indicating the operating status of systems and components of the nuclear power plant, such as by tagging valves and switches to prevent inadvertent operation.
10NON-CONFORMANCE CONTROL
10.1General
Measures shall also be established to control items which do not conform to requirements, in order to prevent their inadvertent use or installation, To ensure control, these non-conforming items shall be identified by marking, by tagging and/or by physical segregation, where practical. Measures which control further processing, delivery or installation of non-conforming or defective items shall be established, documented and implemented.
10.2Non-conformance review and disposition
Non-conforming items shall be reviewed and accepted without modification, rejected, repaired or reworked in accordance with documented procedures. The responsibility for review and authority for disposition of non-conformances shall be defined. Accepted non-conforming items involving a deviation from procurement requirements shall be reported to the purchaser and, when necessary, to the designated authority. The description of changes, waiver or deviation that has been accepted shall be documented to denote the “as built” condition.
11CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
The programme shall provide that appropriate action be taken to ensure that conditions adverse to quality, such as failures, malfunctions, deficiencies, deviations, defective or incorrect material and equipment, and any other non-conformances, are identified and corrected. For significant conditions adverse to quality, the programme shall provide that the cause of such condition be determined and corrective action taken to prevent repetition. The identification of the significant conditions adverse to quality, the cause of the condition and the corrective actions taken shall be documented and reported to appropriate levels of management.
12RECORDS
12.1Preparation of quality assurance records
Quality assurance records adequate for use in management of the quality assurance programme shall be prepared. Records shall represent objective evidence of quality and should include the results of reviews, inspections, tests, audits, monitoring of work performance, materials analyses and power plant operation logs, as well as closely related data, such as qualifications of personnel, procedures and equipment, repairs required and other appropriate documents. All quality assurance records shall be legible, complete and identifiable with respect to the item involved.
12.2Collection, storage and preservation of quality assurance records
A quality assurance record system shall be established and executed in accordance with written procedures and instructions. The system shall require that sufficient records be maintained to furnish evidence of activities affecting quality and to describe baseline pre-operational conditions. The system shall provide for identification, collection, indexing, filing, storing, maintenance and disposal of records. Records shall be stored in such a way that they are readily retrievable and maintained in a suitable environment to minimize deterioration or damage
and to prevent loss.
Retention times of quality assurance records and associated test material and specimens shall be established in writing. In general, records which correctly identify the “as built” condition of items in the plant shall be maintained by or for the responsible organization for the useful life of the item from manufacture through storage, installation and operation. Periods of retention for records other than lifetime records shall be assigned retention times consistent with the type of Record involved. Disposal of records shall be in accordance with written procedures.
13AUDITS
13.1General
Measures shall be undertaken to verify the implementation and effectiveness of the quality assurance programme. As necessary, a system of planned and documented internal and external audits shall be carried out to verify compliance with all aspects of the quality assurance programme and to determine the programme’s effectiveness. The audits shall be performed in accordance with written procedures or check lists. The responsible auditing organizations shall select and assign qualified auditors. They shall be independent of any direct responsibility for the activities which they audit. In the case of internal audits, the parsons having the direct responsibility for performance of the activities being audited shall not be involved in the selection of the audit team. The results of audits shall be documented by the auditors and reviewed by organizations having responsibility in the area audited; Follow-up action shall be taken to verify that deficiencies noted in the audit have been corrected.
13.2Scheduling
Audits shall be scheduled on the basis of the status and importance of the activity, and shall be conducted when one or more of the following conditions exist:
(a)When a systematic, independent assessment of programme effectiveness is considered necessary
(b) When it is necessary to determine the capability of a contractor’s quality assurance programme before awarding a contract or purchase order
(c)After award of a contract, when sufficient time has elapsed for implementing the quality assurance programme and it is appropriate to determine that the organization is adequately performing the functions as defined in the quality assurance programme, applicable codes and Standards and other contract documents
(d)When significant changes are made in functional areas of the quality assurance programme, such as significant reorganization or revisions of procedure
(e)When it is suspected that the quality of’ an item or a service is in jeopardy owing to a deficiency in the quality assurance programme
(f)When it is necessary to verify implementation of required corrective actions.
考点四地球的圈层结构及各圈层的主要特点
考点四.地球的圈层结构及各圈层的主要特点 【考点解读】地球的圈层结构包括由地核、地慢、地壳组成的内部圈层和由大气圈、水圈、生物圈组成的外部圈层。它们的特点是：地核的外核为液态或熔融状，内核为铁镍固体；地慢为铁镁固体，地慢上部的软流层为岩浆发源地；地壳厚度不均，陆壳厚洋壳薄，地壳上为硅铝层，下为硅镁层；大气圈高度愈增大气密度愈降；水圈由液、固、气三态组成，连续而不均匀分布；生物圈与地壳、大气圈、水圈交叉分布且相互渗透，是包括人类在内的生命最活跃的圈层。 (一)地球内部圈层 （1）地球内部圈层的划分依据——地震波 （2）地球内部圈层的划分界面——不连续面 地震波分类及特点 （3）划分：以两个不连续面（莫霍界面、古登堡界面）将地球的内部圈层分为地壳、地幔、地核三层。 （4）岩石圈包括地壳和地幔顶部（软流层以上），全部由岩石构成，是构成地貌、土壤的物质基础，提供各种矿产资源。岩石圈与其它三个外部圈层（大气圈、水圈、生物圈）一起，构成了人类生存的地理环境。 (二)地球外部的四大圈层：大气圈、水圈、岩石圈、生物圈。 1．大气圈的作用：提供生命活动所需要的大气，而且还是生物生存的保护层等，对人类有重大作用。 总的说来，自然界干洁空气中各部分的含量处于动态平衡中，但是不合理的人类活动，能 CO、臭氧的含量的变化）。当前，特别够改变大气各种成分的含量（特别是微量气体，如 2 引起人类关注的是全球二氧化碳含量上升和臭氧含量减少的现象，已经对人类的生存环境产生了重大的负面影响。 3．大气的垂直分层各部分大气层的基本特点： 大气层虽然有数千千米（一般认为有2000～3000千米），但其质量的3/4以上却分布在 离地面十几千米的低层。依据各大气层温度（如图5-1）、密度和运动状况，我们可以将大
联合国主要机构及主要国际组织名称中英版本
1．联合国主要机构及主要国际组织名称 General Assembly of the United Nations 联合国大会 International Court of Justice 国际法院 Security Council 安理会 UNDOF(United Nations Disengagement Observer Force) 联合国脱离接触观察员 部队 UNPKF(United Nations Peace-keeping Force) 联合国维和部队 GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 关税及贸易总协定 ILO(International Labour Organization) 国际劳工组织 FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) 联合国粮食及农业组织UNESCO(United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) 联合国教科文组织 UNEP(United Nations Environment Programme) 联合国环境规划署 UNDP(United Nations Development Program) 联合国开发计划署 World Food Council 世界粮食理事会 UNCTD(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 联合国贸易和发 展会议 WHO(World Health Organization) 世界卫生组织 IMF(International Monetary Fund) 国际货币基金组织 IBRD(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) 国际复兴开发银行 （世界银行） ICAO(International Civil Aviation Organization) 国际民用航空组织 UPU(Universal Postal Union) 万国邮政联盟 WIPO(World International Property Organization) 世界知识产权组织 IAEA(International Atomic Energy Agency) 国际原子能机构 UNHCR(Officer of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) 联合国难民事务高级专员处 ASEAN(Association of Southeast Asian Nations) 东南亚国际联盟，（“东盟”）Commonwealth of Nations 英联邦 EC(European Communities) 欧洲共同体 NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 北大西洋公约组织 OAU(Organization of African Unity) 非洲统一组织 OAS(Organization of American States) 美洲国家组织
to与for的用法和区别
to与for的用法和区别 一般情况下, to后面常接对象; for后面表示原因与目的为多。 Thank you for helping me. Thanks to all of you. to sb.表示对某人有直接影响比如，食物对某人好或者不好就用to; for表示从意义、价值等间接角度来说，例如对某人而言是重要的，就用for. for和to这两个介词，意义丰富，用法复杂。这里仅就它们主要用法进行比较。 1. 表示各种“目的” 1. What do you study English for? 你为什么要学英语？ 2. She went to france for holiday. 她到法国度假去了。 3. These books are written for pupils. 这些书是为学生些的。 4. hope for the best, prepare for the worst. 作最好的打算，作最坏的准备。 2．对于 1．She has a liking for painting. 她爱好绘画。 2．She had a natural gift for teaching. 她对教学有天赋/ 3．表示赞成同情，用for不用to. 1. Are you for the idea or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个想法？ 2. He expresses sympathy for the common people.. 他表现了对普通老百姓的同情。 3. I felt deeply sorry for my friend who was very ill. 4 for表示因为，由于（常有较活译法） 1 Thank you for coming. 谢谢你来。 2. France is famous for its wines. 法国因酒而出名。 5．当事人对某事的主观看法，对于（某人），对…来说（多和形容词连用）用介词to，不用for.. He said that money was not important to him. 他说钱对他并不重要。 To her it was rather unusual. 对她来说这是相当不寻常的。 They are cruel to animals. 他们对动物很残忍。 6．for和fit, good, bad, useful, suitable 等形容词连用，表示适宜，适合。 Some training will make them fit for the job. 经过一段训练，他们会胜任这项工作的。 Exercises are good for health. 锻炼有益于健康。 Smoking and drinking are bad for health. 抽烟喝酒对健康有害。 You are not suited for the kind of work you are doing. 7. for表示不定式逻辑上的主语，可以用在主语、表语、状语、定语中。 1．It would be best for you to write to him. 2．The simple thing is for him to resign at once. 3．There was nowhere else for me to go. 4．He opened a door and stood aside for her to pass.
延时子程序计算方法
学习MCS-51单片机，如果用软件延时实现时钟，会接触到如下形式的延时子程序：delay:mov R5,#data1 d1:mov R6,#data2 d2:mov R7,#data3 d3:djnz R7,d3 djnz R6,d2 djnz R5,d1 Ret 其精确延时时间公式：t=（2*R5*R6*R7+3*R5*R6+3*R5+3）*T （“*”表示乘法，T表示一个机器周期的时间）近似延时时间公式：t=2*R5*R6*R7 *T 假如data1,data2,data3分别为50，40，248，并假定单片机晶振为12M，一个机器周期为10-6S，则10分钟后，时钟超前量超过1.11秒，24小时后时钟超前159.876秒（约2分40秒）。这都是data1,data2,data3三个数字造成的，精度比较差，建议C描述。
上表中e=-1的行（共11行）满足（2*R5*R6*R7+3*R5*R6+3*R5+3）=999，999 e=1的行（共2行）满足（2*R5*R6*R7+3*R5*R6+3*R5+3）=1，000，001 假如单片机晶振为12M，一个机器周期为10-6S，若要得到精确的延时一秒的子程序，则可以在之程序的Ret返回指令之前加一个机器周期为1的指令（比如nop指令）， data1,data2,data3选择e=-1的行。比如选择第一个e=-1行，则精确的延时一秒的子程序可以写成： delay:mov R5,#167 d1:mov R6,#171 d2:mov R7,#16 d3:djnz R7,d3 djnz R6,d2
djnz R5,d1 nop ；注意不要遗漏这一句 Ret 附： #include"iostReam.h" #include"math.h" int x=1,y=1,z=1,a,b,c,d,e(999989),f(0),g(0),i,j,k; void main() { foR(i=1;i<255;i++) { foR(j=1;j<255;j++) { foR(k=1;k<255;k++) { d=x*y*z*2+3*x*y+3*x+3-1000000; if(d==-1) { e=d;a=x;b=y;c=z; f++; cout<<"e="< 世界各组织机构全称及 缩写 Document serial number【KK89K-LLS98YT-SS8CB-SSUT-SST108】 世界各组织、机构全称及其缩写 UN ( the United Nations) 联合国 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (联合国)粮食及农业组织 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 联合国教科文组织 UNCF (United Nations Children's Fund, ——其前身是United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund) 联合国儿童基金会 UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization) 联合国工业发展组织 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) 联合国开发计划署 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 联合国环境署 UNCDF(United Nations Capital Development Fund) 联合国资本开发基金会 UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 联合国贸易与发展会议 WHO (World Health Organization) 世界卫生组织 WMO (World Meteorological Organization) 世界气象组织 世界各组织、机构全称及其缩写UN ( the United Nations) 联合国 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (联合国)粮食及农业组织 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 联合国教科文组织 UNCF (United Nations Children's Fund, ——其前身是United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund) 联合国儿童基金会 UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization) 联合国工业发展组织 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) 联合国开发计划署 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 联合国环境署 UNCDF(United Nations Capital Development Fund) 联合国资本开发基金会 UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) 联合国贸易与发展会议 WHO (World Health Organization) 世界卫生组织 WMO (World Meteorological Organization) 世界气象组织 WTO (World Trade Organization) 世界贸易组织 前身为GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 关税及贸易组织 WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) 世界知识产权组织 WPC (World Peace Council) 世界和平理事会 ILO (International Labour Organization) 国际劳工组织 IMF (International Monetary Fund) 国际货币基金组织 IOC (International Olympic Committee) 国际奥林匹克委员会 UPU (Universal Postal Union) 万国邮政联盟 For的用法 1. 表示“当作、作为”。如: I like some bread and milk for breakfast. 我喜欢把面包和牛奶作为早餐。 What will we have for supper? 我们晚餐吃什么? 2. 表示理由或原因,意为“因为、由于”。如: Thank you for helping me with my English. 谢谢你帮我学习英语。 3. 表示动作的对象或接受者,意为“给……”、“对…… (而言)”。如: Let me pick it up for you. 让我为你捡起来。 Watching TV too much is bad for your health. 看电视太多有害于你的健康。 4. 表示时间、距离,意为“计、达”。如: I usually do the running for an hour in the morning. 我早晨通常跑步一小时。 We will stay there for two days. 我们将在那里逗留两天。 5. 表示去向、目的,意为“向、往、取、买”等。如: Let’s go for a walk. 我们出去散步吧。 I came here for my schoolbag.我来这儿取书包。 I paid twenty yuan for the dictionary. 我花了20元买这本词典。 6. 表示所属关系或用途,意为“为、适于……的”。如: It’s time for school. 到上学的时间了。 Here is a letter for you. 这儿有你的一封信。 7. 表示“支持、赞成”。如: Are you for this plan or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个计划? 8. 用于一些固定搭配中。如: Who are you waiting for? 你在等谁? For example, Mr Green is a kind teacher. 比如,格林先生是一位心地善良的老师。 尽管for 的用法较多，但记住常用的几个就可以了。 to的用法: 一：表示相对，针对 be strange (common, new, familiar, peculiar) to This injection will make you immune to infection. 二：表示对比，比较 1：以-ior结尾的形容词，后接介词to表示比较，如：superior ,inferior,prior,senior,junior 2: 一些本身就含有比较或比拟意思的形容词，如equal，similar，equivalent，analogous A is similar to B in many ways. C程序中可使用不同类型的变量来进行延时设计。经实验测试，使用unsigned char类型具有比unsigned int更优化的代码，在使用时 应该使用unsigned char作为延时变量。以某晶振为12MHz的单片 机为例，晶振为12M H z即一个机器周期为1u s。一. 500ms延时子程序 程序: void delay500ms(void) { unsigned char i,j,k; for(i=15;i>0;i--) for(j=202;j>0;j--) for(k=81;k>0;k--); } 计算分析: 程序共有三层循环 一层循环n:R5*2 = 81*2 = 162us DJNZ 2us 二层循环m:R6*(n+3) = 202*165 = 33330us DJNZ 2us + R5赋值 1us = 3us 三层循环: R7*(m+3) = 15*33333 = 499995us DJNZ 2us + R6赋值 1us = 3us 循环外: 5us 子程序调用 2us + 子程序返回2us + R7赋值 1us = 5us 延时总时间 = 三层循环 + 循环外 = 499995+5 = 500000us =500ms 计算公式:延时时间=[(2*R5+3)*R6+3]*R7+5 二. 200ms延时子程序 程序: void delay200ms(void) { unsigned char i,j,k; for(i=5;i>0;i--) for(j=132;j>0;j--) for(k=150;k>0;k--); } 三. 10ms延时子程序 程序: void delay10ms(void) { unsigned char i,j,k; for(i=5;i>0;i--) for(j=4;j>0;j--) for(k=248;k>0;k--); 世界机构组织联盟协会缩写全称 AAPP（Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace）亚洲议会和平协会 ACS（Association of Caribbean States）加勒比国家联盟 ACWW（Associated Country Women of the World）世界乡村妇女协会 ADB（Asian Development Bank）亚洲开发银行 AI（Amnesty International）大赦国际 AIE（Association of International Education）国际教育协会 ANRPC（Association of Natrual Rubber Producing Countries）天然橡胶生产国协会APA（Asian Parliamentary Assembly）亚洲议会大会 APSCO（Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization）亚太空间合作组织 ASEAN（Association of Southeast Asian Nations）东南亚国家联盟 ATP（Association of Tennis Professional）国际网球联合会 BIE（International Exhibitions Bureau）国际展览局 BJS（Bureau of Justice Statistics）美国司法统计局 BSR（Business for Social Responsibility）商务社会国际责任协会 CARICOM（Caribbean Community and Common Market）加勒比共同体和共同市场CBA（Continental Basketball Association）国际篮球协会 CBDA（China Building Decoration Association）中国建筑装饰协会 CBSS（Council of the Baltic Sea States）波罗的海国家理事会 CCA（Chinese Chess Association）中国象棋协会 CDB（Caribbean Development Bank）加勒比开发银行 CIA（Central Intelligence Agency) 美国中央情报局 CIECA（China International E-Commerce Association）中国国际电子商务协会 CIS（Commonwealth of Independent States）独立国家联合体 CSBA（Chinese Billiards & Snooker Association）中国台球协会 CTTA（Chinese Table Tennis Association）中国乒乓球协会 DHS（United States Department of Homeland Security）美国国土安全局 DOD（Department of Defense）美国国家防御部 ECB（European Central Bank）欧洲中央银行 ECOWAS（Economic Community of West African States）西非国家经济共同体 EEC（European Economic Communities）欧洲经济共同体 EFTA（European Free Trade Association）欧洲自由贸易联盟 ERRI（European Rail Research Institute）欧洲铁道研究所 EU（the European Union）欧洲联盟 Expo（World Exposition）世界博览会 FATF（Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering）反洗钱金融行动特别工作组FBI（Federal Bureau of Investigation) 美国联邦调查局 FIAB（International Volleyball Federation）国际排球协会 FIFA（International Federation of Association Football）国际足球协会 IAEA（International Atomic Energy Agency）国际原子能机构 IAEE（International Association of Exhibitions and Events）国际展览与项目协会 IASA（International Association for Sports Information）国际体育信息协会 IATA（International Air Transport Association）国际航空运输协会 IAU（International Association of Universities）国际大学协会 1.表示各种“目的”，用for （1）What do you study English for 你为什么要学英语？ （2）went to france for holiday. 她到法国度假去了。 （3）These books are written for pupils. 这些书是为学生些的。 （4）hope for the best, prepare for the worst. 作最好的打算，作最坏的准备。 2．“对于”用for （1）She has a liking for painting. 她爱好绘画。 （2）She had a natural gift for teaching. 她对教学有天赋/ 3．表示“赞成、同情”，用for （1）Are you for the idea or against it 你是支持还是反对这个想法？ （2）He expresses sympathy for the common people.. 他表现了对普通老百姓的同情。 （3）I felt deeply sorry for my friend who was very ill. 4. 表示“因为，由于”（常有较活译法），用for （1）Thank you for coming. 谢谢你来。 （2）France is famous for its wines. 法国因酒而出名。 5．当事人对某事的主观看法，“对于（某人），对…来说”，（多和形容词连用），用介词to，不用for. （1）He said that money was not important to him. 他说钱对他并不重要。 （2）To her it was rather unusual. 对她来说这是相当不寻常的。 （3）They are cruel to animals. 他们对动物很残忍。 6．和fit, good, bad, useful, suitable 等形容词连用，表示“适宜，适合”，用for。（1）Some training will make them fit for the job. 经过一段训练，他们会胜任这项工作的。 （2）Exercises are good for health. 锻炼有益于健康。 （3）Smoking and drinking are bad for health. 抽烟喝酒对健康有害。 （4）You are not suited for the kind of work you are doing. 7. 表示不定式逻辑上的主语，可以用在主语、表语、状语、定语中。 （1）It would be best for you to write to him. （2） The simple thing is for him to resign at once. 一、关于单片机周期的几个概念 ●时钟周期 时钟周期也称为振荡周期，定义为时钟脉冲的倒数（可以这样来理解，时钟周期就是单片机外接晶振的倒数，例如12MHz的晶振，它的时间周期就是1/12 us），是计算机中最基本的、最小的时间单位。 在一个时钟周期内，CPU仅完成一个最基本的动作。 ●机器周期 完成一个基本操作所需要的时间称为机器周期。 以51为例,晶振12M，时钟周期(晶振周期)就是(1/12)μs，一个机器周期包 执行一条指令所需要的时间，一般由若干个机器周期组成。指令不同，所需的机器周期也不同。 对于一些简单的的单字节指令，在取指令周期中，指令取出到指令寄存器后，立即译码执行，不再需要其它的机器周期。对于一些比较复杂的指令，例如转移指令、乘法指令，则需要两个或者两个以上的机器周期。 1.指令含义 DJNZ：减1条件转移指令 这是一组把减1与条件转移两种功能结合在一起的指令，共2条。 DJNZ Rn，rel ；Rn←（Rn）-1 ；若（Rn）=0，则PC←（PC）+2 ；顺序执行 ；若（Rn）≠0，则PC←（PC）+2+rel，转移到rel所在位置DJNZ direct，rel ；direct←（direct）-1 ；若（direct）= 0，则PC←（PC）+3；顺序执行 ；若（direct）≠0，则PC←（PC）+3+rel，转移到rel 所在位置 2.DJNZ Rn,rel指令详解 例： MOV R7，#5 DEL:DJNZ R7,DEL; rel在本例中指标号DEL 1.单层循环 由上例可知，当Rn赋值为几，循环就执行几次，上例执行5次，因此本例执行的机器周期个数=1（MOV R7，#5）+2（DJNZ R7,DEL）×5=11，以12MHz的晶振为例，执行时间（延时时间）=机器周期个数×1μs=11μs，当设定立即数为0时，循环程序最多执行256次，即延时时间最多256μs。 2.双层循环 1）格式： DELL:MOV R7，#bb DELL1:MOV R6，#aa DELL2:DJNZ R6,DELL2; rel在本句中指标号DELL2 DJNZ R7,DELL1; rel在本句中指标号DELL1 注意：循环的格式，写错很容易变成死循环，格式中的Rn和标号可随意指定。 2）执行过程 考点四地球的圈层结构及各圈层的主要特点 【考点解读】地球的圈层结构包括由地核、地慢、地壳组成的内部圈层和由大气圈、水圈、生物圈组成的外部圈层。它们的特点是：地核的外核为液态或熔融状，内核为铁镍固体；地慢为铁镁固体，地慢上部的软流层为岩浆发源地；地壳厚度不均，陆壳厚洋壳薄，地壳上为硅铝层，下为硅镁层；大气圈高度愈增大气密度愈降；水圈由液、固、气三态组成，连续而不均匀分布；生物圈与地壳、大气圈、水圈交叉分布且相互渗透，是包括人类在内的生命最活跃的圈层。 (一)地球内部圈层 （1）地球内部圈层的划分依据——地震波 （2）地球内部圈层的划分界面——不连续面 地震波分类及特点 （3）划分：以两个不连续面（莫霍界面、古登堡界面）将地球的内部圈层分为地壳、地幔、地核三层。 （4）岩石圈包括地壳和地幔顶部（软流层以上），全部由岩石构成，是构成地貌、土壤的物质基础，提供各种矿产资源。岩石圈与其它三个外部圈层（大气圈、水圈、生物圈）一起，构成了人类生存的地理环境。 (二)地球外部的四大圈层：大气圈、水圈、岩石圈、生物圈。 1．大气圈的作用：提供生命活动所需要的大气，而且还是生物生存的保护层等，对人类有重大作用。 2．大气的主要成分及各种成分的环境意义 总的说来，自然界干洁空气中各部分的含量处于动态平衡中，但是不合理的人类活动，能够改变大气各种成分的含量（特别是微量气体，如、臭氧的含量的变化）。当前，特别引起人类关注的是全球二氧化碳含量上升和臭氧含量减少的现象，已经对人类的生存环境产生了重大的负面影响。 3．大气的垂直分层各部分大气层的基本特点： 大气层虽然有数千千米（一般认为有2000～3000千米），但其质量的3/4以上却分布在离地面十几千米的低层。依据各大气层温度（如图5-1）、密度和运动状况，我们可以将大气层分成对流层、平流层和高层大气。 （1）大气层的基本特点见下表： 【考题例析】 1.读“地震波速度与地球内部构造图”，回答下列问题： 国际机构列表 列举国际组织和各种国际论坛 ?阿拉伯议会联盟（Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union，AIPU） ?阿拉伯国家联盟（League of Arab States，LAS） ?阿拉伯马格里布联盟（Union du Maghreb Arabe，UMA） ?阿拉伯石油输出国组织（Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries，OAPEC）?八国集团（G8，原七国集团） ?北大西洋公约组织 ?博鳌亚洲论坛 ?东南亚国家联盟 (亚细安) ?独立国家联合体 ?法非首脑会议（Sommet France-Afrique） ?法语国家首脑会议（Sommet de la Francophonie） ?共产国际 ?二十国集团 ?国际红十字会 ?国际奥林匹克委员会 ?国际海底管理局 ?国际卫星对地观测委员会 (CEOS) ?国际电气与电子工程师学会 (IEEE) ?国际电工委员会 (IEC) ?国际能源机构 ( International Energy Agency, IEA ) ?国际原子能机构 (International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA) ?国际大坝委员会 (International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) ?国际文凭组织（International Baccalaureate Organization，IBO） ?华沙条约组织 ?联合国 ?联合国和平利用外层空间委员会 (OOSA) ?联合国开发计划署 ?联合国经济及社会理事会 ?联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会(联合国亚太经社理事会、ESCAP) ?欧洲联盟 ?上海合作组织 ?世界银行 ?世界贸易组织 ?世界知识产权组织 ?世界能源委员会 (World Energy Council, WEC) ?亚洲太平洋经济合作组织(亚太经合组织，APEC) ?亚洲开发银行 ?亚洲政党国际会议 ?石油输出国组织 ?伊斯兰会议组织 非洲 ?东非共同体 1. 两者都可以引出间接宾语，但要根据不同的动词分别选用介词to 或for： (1) 在give, pass, hand, lend, send, tell, bring, show, pay, read, return, write, offer, teach, throw 等之后接介词to。 如： 请把那本字典递给我。 正：Please hand me that dictionary. 正：Please hand that dictionary to me. 她去年教我们的音乐。 正：She taught us music last year. 正：She taught music to us last year. (2) 在buy, make, get, order, cook, sing, fetch, play, find, paint, choose,prepare, spare 等之后用介词for 。如： 他为我们唱了首英语歌。 正：He sang us an English song. 正：He sang an English song for us. 请帮我把钥匙找到。 正：Please find me the keys. 正：Please find the keys for me. 能耽搁你几分钟吗(即你能为我抽出几分钟吗)? 正：Can you spare me a few minutes? 正：Can you spare a few minutes for me? 注：有的动词由于搭配和含义的不同，用介词to 或for 都是可能的。如： do sb a favou r do a favour for sb 帮某人的忙 do sb harnn= do harm to sb 对某人有害 1. 地球表层指与人类直接有关的一部分地球环境，其范畴大致上始大气对流层顶，下至岩石圈上部，包括大气、水、岩石、生物在内的特殊圈层。地球表层的各圈层之间有着千丝万缕的联系，它们是相互关联、互相渗透的。岩石圈承载着河流、湖泊，人类和一切生命系统也活跃在这里。在各圈层之间有非常广泛的物质和能量的传输和交换。海洋和大气之间的相互作用就是非常明显的例证。大气和水圈海洋的相互作用，可以影响到全世界的天气变化。同时，它们承受变化而不产生灾难的能力是有限的。 岩石圈 地壳是地球表面一层薄薄的、由岩石组成的固体外壳，地球固体圈层的最外层，岩石圈的重要组成部分，其底界为莫霍洛维契奇不连续面（简称莫霍面）。整个地壳均匀厚度约17千米，其中大陆地壳厚度较大，均匀为33千米。高山、高原地区地壳更厚，最高可达70千米；平原、盆地地壳相对较薄。大洋地壳则远比大陆地壳薄，厚度只有几千米。 大气圈 大气圈是地球外圈中最外部的气体圈层，它包围着海洋和陆地。大气圈没有确切的上界，在2000～公里高空仍有淡薄的气体和基本粒子。在地下，土壤和某些岩石中也会有少量空气，它们也可以为是大气圈的一个组成部分。由于地心引力作用，几乎全部的气体集中在离地面100公里的高度范围内，其中75％的大气又集中在地面至10公里高度的对流层范围内。对流层的气温随高度的增加而降低，空气对流运动明显，是与人类关系最密切的一层，由于云、雨、雾、雪等天气现象都发生在这一层。平流层大气以水平运动为主，气流平稳，适合飞机飞行。气温随着高度的增加而升高，由于平流层的臭氧层吸收了大量的紫外线。高层大气空气密度很小，含有电离层，能够反射无线电波，对人类的无线电通讯活动有重要作用。 地球大气圈是一个保护层，使人类免受有害射线的照射，同时提供了人类生存所必须的氧气。 国际原子能机构与核保障制度 古祖雪丁祥高 2013-01-29 21:14:03 来源：《厦门大学学报：哲社版》2008年4期作者简介：古祖雪，丁祥高，厦门大学法学院。（厦门 361005） 内容提要：核保障制度作为国际核能秩序的重要组成部分，是以国际原子能机构规约的核保障条款为依据，以核保障协定范本为基础，以国际原子能机构与其成员国或其他当事方之间的保障协定为主要内容，用以控制核能用于军事目的的法律制度。国际原子能机构作为国家之间在核能领域开展多边合作的有效形式，既是核保障的制度探索产物，又为核保障制度的产生、发展和实施提供了可资依附的常设机构。中国作为有核国家，虽然曾对核保障制度采取抵制的态度，但随着国际关系的变化和自身实力的增强，已经并正在为核保障制度的完善与实施发挥着积极的作用。 关键词：国际原子能机构不扩散核武器条约核保障制度核查 核保障制度作为国际核能秩序的重要组成部分，是控制核能用于军事目的的法律制度。国际原子能机构（International Atomic Energy Agency，以下简称为“IAEA”）作为国家之间在核能领域开展多边合作的有效形式，既是核保障的制度探索产物，又为核保障制度的产生、发展和实施提供了可资依附的常设机构。从某种意义上说，IAEA的产生与发展就是核保障制度的产生与发展。基于这种认识，本文旨在通过考察IAEA核保障制度的源流及其实施机制，认识和把握国际核能秩序变化的特点和规律，提供中国参与国际核能秩序建议的一些启示。 一、IAEA的诞生与核保障制度的源流 （一）核保障的制度探索与IAEA的诞生 核保障制度是伴随着IAEA的诞生而形成的。但国际社会对核保障的制度探索，早在IAEA诞生之前就已经开始了，从最初的酝酿到诞生，其中特别值得纪念的事件主要有： 1.1945年第一颗原子弹爆炸三个月后，美国总统、英国首相和加拿大总理一道发布了“原子能共同宣言”，建议联合国设立原子能委员会（Atomic Energy Commission,NAEC），研究如何限制核能只用于和平目的，如何从各国武器库中消灭核武器，如何建立保障措施以确保所有国家遵守它们基于这些目的承担的义务。[1] 2.1946年1月24日联合国大会通过了第一届会议的第一号决议，决定设立联合国原子能委员会，“处理由原子能之发现所引起的问题”，[2] “确保其仅为和平目的而使用”，“摒除国防军备中的原子武器……”[3] 之后，美国总统杜鲁门即提出了“巴鲁克计划”，主张对核活动实行国际共管，置于拟建立的“国际原子能开发署”（International Atomic Development Authority, IADA）监管之下，从而结束核武器的开发和生产，并销毁一切核武器。该计划由于前苏联的反对而最终流产。 3.1953年12月，美国总统艾森豪威尔发表“原子能用于和平（Atoms for Peace）”的演讲，提出一切有兴趣的国家均可共享核技术，但前提是接受保障监督，不得将裂变材料用于军事用途。该计划建议政府将铀或其他裂变材料交由一家承担类似“银行”职能的机构控制，并且将这家机构叫作“国际原子能机构 《地球的圈层结构》教案 一、课标分析：说出地球的圈层结构，概括各圈层的主要特点。 1、在宏观了解地球圈层结构的基础上认识自然环境的组成，即在空间范围上把自然环境放在地球圈层结构中认识。但是对于各圈层不要求展开深入了解，而应抓其主要特点及与人类活动关系密切的内容。 2、本条活动建议提出对地球圈层进行讲解时，要充分运用感性认知的手段，如利用教具、学具，或者绘制示意图，进而构架起地球圈层结构的认知框架。 3、在对这一部分自然环境学习的基础上，可知人类通过长期活动创造了人文环境，而自然环境和人文环境共同组成地理环境，加深对人类生活的地球表层的认识。 二、教材分析 本节教材的叙述性内容主要从两个大方面进行阐述：第一部分是地球的内部圈层，包括内部圈层的划分及边界，地壳的组成元素、厚薄和分布和地核的组成和状态。地球内部的圈层结构特点多是由地震波波速变化来间接推断的，因此，将地震波波速随深度变化及两个突变界面作为教学的主要过程是必要的，而教学的成果是学生可以在指导下绘制内部圈层结构。 三、学情分析 1、本节课的教学对象是高一年级的学生，区别于初中学生的地方在于，已具备了一定的自主学习能力；求区别于高年级学生的地方在于，读图分析能力一般，合作探究能力较为欠缺，仍需恰当地启发，适当点拨，但对手动操作视频、动画等直接感知有兴趣，教师应充分激发这一兴趣。 2、本阶段学生已经完成了第一章行星地球—前三节的学习，对高中地理有 了初步的认识，加上前一阶段学习内容难度较大（地球的外部环境和地球运动），而地球圈层结构这部分内容的难度较低，因而可以采用灵活的教学方法，提高学生对地理的兴趣，重塑学习地理的信心。 3、地球圈层结构的内容对学习必修一后三章都具有重要的基础和铺垫作用，有利于学生建立起四大圈层的框架，并能够在空间范围上把自然环境放在地球圈层结构中认识，逐步培养起地理思维。 四、教学目标： 【知识与技能】掌握依据地震波划分地球内部圈层的方法；知道并能说出地球内部各圈层的主要特点以及岩石圈的概念； 【过程与方法】通过小组讨论分析图1—21，学生体会运用地震波划分出地球内部圈层的过程；能够绘制地球内部圈层示意图； 【情感、态度与价值观】通过体会运用地震波划分出地球内部圈层的过程，培养学生的科学探索精神；通过认识地球的圈层结构系统，培养树立起热爱地球和保护地球的观念。 五、教学重难点 【教学难点】地震波在地球内部传播速度的变化与地球内部物质组成的关系；地球内圈层的空间分布、组成和特点。 【教学重点】区分岩石圈与地壳；地球各圈层的特点。 六、教学方法 1、教法：启发式讲授：在讲授知识的过程中，有意识地对学生的思维进行启发，不急于得到答案，注重学生思考的过程；穿插针对知识点的扩展延伸，使学生将新学到的知识运用到实际生活学习中。世界各组织机构全称及缩写
世界各组织机构全称及缩写
常用介词用法(for to with of)
单片机C延时时间怎样计算
国际机构组织缩写大全(顺序版)
for和to区别
51单片机延时时间计算和延时程序设计
高中地理 考点四地球的圈层结构及各圈层的主要特点
国际机构列表
双宾语tofor的用法
地球表层四大圈层
国际原子能机构与核保障制度
地球的圈层 教案