7个教学方法的起源、特征、优缺点

Grammar-Translation Approach, the Direct Approach, the Audio-lingual Approach, the Situational Approach, Total Physical Response, the Communicative Approach and Task-Based Language Teaching.

1. The Grammar-Translation Approach

The Grammar-Translation Approach, once called the Classical Approach, was first used to teach the classical languages of Latin and Greek in Europe during the Renaissance. Between the 17th and the early 19th centuries, it was extended to the teaching of modern languages such as English, French and German. Later it became an approach to foreign language teaching all over the world.

Features:(1) The aim is to teach students to read and appreciate foreign language literature and translate the written language.(2) It is assumed that, through the study of the grammar of the target language, students will become more familiar with their native language and will speak and write their native language better.(3) It is thought that foreign language learning will help students grow intellectually.(4) Instruction is given in the native language of the students.(5) There is little use of the target language.(6) V ocabulary and grammar are emphasized.(7) Grammar is taught deductively, that is, students are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and are asked to apply the rules to other examples.(8) Model sentences and vocabulary lists are given.(9) A typical exercise is to translate sentences and texts from the target language into students' native language.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) It provides students with a clear understanding of the grammatical rules as well as an ability to comprehend written texts, especially when dealing with long difficult sentences. It contributes to the development of students' abilities of writing and translating. (2) This approach usually results in an inability on the part of the students to use the target language for communication. In addition, the monotonous teaching style tends to make students lose interest in foreign language learning.

The Grammar-Translation Approach dominates the English classroom for many years. In recent years, the typical grammar-translation teaching procedure has been

phased out. But its techniques such as explaining grammatical rules, translating sentences and doing grammar- focused exercises still have a firm position in English classrooms.

2. The Direct Approach

By the end of the 19th century the Direct Approach had been established. This approach receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be connected directly with the target language, without going through the process of translating into the students' native language.

Features :(1) Focus is on spoken language.(2) Only the target language should be used in class. No translation is permitted.(3) Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style.(4) Actions, realia and pictures are used to convey meanings.(5) Grammar is learned in an inductive way.(6) Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically.(7) The target culture is also taught inductively.(8) The teacher must be a native speaker or have nativelike proficiency in the target language.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) The direct connection between the target language and the real world contributes to the learner's ability to think in the target language. Students' interest is aroused in participating learning activities. The emphasis on pronunciation, intonation and spoken language can effectively develop students' ability to understand and speak the target language. (2) The disadvantage of the Direct Approach lies in impracticality. Its rejection of the students' mother tongue leads to the failure in understanding abstract and complicated concepts. Students are apt to make grammatical errors in speaking due to the lack of explicit explanation in the teaching process.

Nowadays no teacher uses the Direct Approach in a rigid way. But successful teachers always follow some of its principles and techniques with adaptation. They try to make meanings of vocabulary items clear by using gestures, realia and pictures whenever possible, with the intention of helping students learn to think in English. They teach in English but use Chinese as an aid when necessary. They direct the class

activities to make students active and to provide them with opportunities to communicate in English.

3. The Audio-lingual Approach

The Audio-lingual Approach was developed in the United States during World War II. It was obvious that oral skills were necessary. Some of its principles are similar to those of the Direct Approach, but many are different, having been based upon conceptions of language and learning from structural linguistics and behavioral psychology.

Features: (1) The spoken language is the fundamental form of language.(2) Lessons begin with dialogues.(3) Only the target language should be used in class.(4) Mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language learning is a process of habit formation.(5) Grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively.(6) Pronunciation is emphasized from the beginning.(7) Errors are not tolerated. It is more important to produce correct language structures than being able to produce meaningful sentences.(8) It is believed that each language has a finite number of patterns. The major objective of language teaching is for the students to acquire the structural patterns. Pattern practice helps students form habits which enable them to use the patterns.(9) The teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabulary, etc. that he is teaching since learning activities are carefully controlled.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) It encourages students to use the target language to communicate, which enables them to develop the speaking ability. The pattern drills of this approach give beginning learners great help in learning and memorizing structures. As a result, students can speak accurately and fluently. (2) The biggest drawback is that it is unfavorable to the development of creative thinking. The mechanical mimicry and repetition make students lose the initiative in learning.

4. The Situational Approach

The Situational Approach was developed in Europe and was popular during the

1950s and 1960s. It takes much from the Direct Approach but adds features from the emerging professional field of language pedagogy. It emphasizes the spoken language and stresses structural accuracy. It presents language in natural situational contexts.

Features: (1) The spoken language is the primary goal of language teaching.(2) All language materials are practiced orally before being presented in the written form.(3) The task of language teaching is primarily to have students practice language and only secondarily to convey language knowledge.(4) Only the target language is allowed in class.(5) Language and situation are closely connected. New lexical and grammatical items are presented and practiced in situations.(6) Situational dialogues are central materials and learning activities.(7) Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.(8) V ocabulary is controlled, based on frequency and usefulness.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) The greatest contribution of the Situational Approach is its introduction of modern technology into language teaching. The direct connection between language and images helps students develop the ability of thinking in the target language. The use of situations provides students with a need as well as a Possibility to communicate in the target language.(2) It overemphasizes spoken language and separates it from written language. As a result, it slows down the pace of language learning. In addition, since their native language is rejected, students have difficulty in understanding some abstract lexical items and grammatical structures.

The greatest influence of the Situational Approach on China's English teaching is the use of situations. Many teachers present new words and structures in situations-real situations and imagined ones. This is more often done in teaching lower level students. Practicing language in situations is used for all level students in the teaching of spoken English. Usually the teacher gives a situation and the students work in pairs or small groups to practice the newly-learned language.

5. Total Physical Response

It was developed in the 1960s in the United States. This is the outgrowth of

research in first language acquisition. It is observed that babies spend many months listening to the people around them long before they ever say a word. And they apparently learn to understand a great deal before they try to say much. No one tells them that they must speak. They choose to speak when they are ready. This fact leads some language methodologists to assume that second or foreign language learning is very similar to first language acquisition. In the Total Physical Response method, the students listen and respond to the target language commands of their teacher.

Features: (1) Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading and writing to develop spontaneously over time given the right conditions.(2) Meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions. Memory is activated through learner response.(3) Students should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding nonverbally in meaningful ways before they speak.(4) The imperative is a powerful linguistic device through which the teacher can direct student behavior.(5) Spoken language is emphasized over written language.(6) It is unnecessary or even counter-productive to correct the students' errors. Work on the fine details of the language should be postponed until students have become somewhat proficient.(7) Teachers who are non-native speakers should make full use of the appropriate materials such as audiotapes and videotapes to provide the appropriate input for the learners.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) TPR offers a less demanding way to develop the comprehension skills of young beginning learners and also helps to develop their spoken language. Second/foreign language learning is made fun, therefore students are easily engaged in learning. It is most effective for teaching children during early foreign language instruction. (2) A criticism is voiced against TPR to the effect that it deals with language in too general a way and fails to train students to perform functions, such as expressing gratitude and apologizing. Responding to commands can only lead to the learning of some language items. Deemphasizing grammar teaching results in an incomplete understanding of language structures on the part of the students. This method is not appropriate when students have progressed to a higher level of language learning.

TPR is widely used in English teaching at kindergartens and primary schools. This method has stimulated the development of textbooks. Many current textbooks for children involve the TPR activities. In addition, it often characterizes the classroom procedure.

6. The Communicative Approach

It emerged in the 1970s. The advocates of the approach acknowledge that language is not just bits of grammar, it also involves functions such as greeting, apologizing,agreeing persuading, etc. V ocabulary and structures are important, but preparation for communication will not be adequate if only these are taught. Students also need to learn how to use functions in a social context. Effective communication is based not only on a speaker's intent and his level of emotion, but on whom he is speaking to and what his relationship with that person is. This approach has spread widely around the world.

Features: (1) The goal of language teaching is to develop learner ability to communicate in the target language.(2) The content of the language course should include linguistic structures, semantic notions and social functions.(3) Classroom materials are often authentic. (4) Classroom activities are also authentic. (5) Skills are integrated in classroom activities.(6) Students often engage in games, role-plays,story telling and dramatization to adjust their use of the target language to different social contexts.(7) Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of development of communicative skills. (8)The target language is used in all classroom activities.(9) The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

Advantages and disadvantages:(1) It contributes largely to the development of students’ communicative ability. Students gain confidence and fluency in speaking the target language. This approach enables the learners to communicate fluently and appropriately in different social contexts.(2) The negative side is that its tolerance towards the students' errors tends to result in the lack of accuracy in their spoken language. Another problem with it is the lack of criteria for determining functional items. Moreover, it is difficult to make functional items compatible with structures in

developing materials and organizing teaching activities.

It has influenced textbook writing and classroom teaching in China. Function is one of the aspects in the syllabus. In some textbooks, functions are made clear for each unit or lesson. In the teaching process, the teacher explains the functions and designs activities for the students to practice those functions in order to use English appropriately.

7. Task-Based Language Teaching

The early development of Task-Based Language Teaching dates back to the 1970s. Here the focus is on the task rather than the language. A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language. Tasks are designed according to real life communicative needs. The aim is to develop students’ ability to use the target language in real communication.

Features: (1) The primary focus is on the task.(2) There is language preparation before the task. Language study is done after the task with an aim to solve the students’specific language problems.(3) It emphasizes the learning process, during which the students complete real life tasks in order to develop the communicative ability in the target language.(4) The central principle is learning by doing.(5) Students, success is judged in terms of whether or not the tasks are performed.(6) Students are the active participants in learning activities rather than passive recipients of knowledge.(7) The teacher is seen as an organizer, facilitator, monitor, and sometimes partner.

Advantages and disadvantages: (1) It provides students with a real need to use the target language and therefore is beneficial to the development of their communicative ability. Appropriate tasks can arouse students’ interest in learning and create a lively class atmosphere. This method helps students to develop a life-long learning capacity.(2) Task-Based Language Teaching is undoubtedly a demanding method. The teacher must be proficient in the target language. He should be creative enough to design real life tasks, knowledgeable enough to give his students the necessary help, and flexible enough to deal with the unexpected situations in the

classroom. One important issue is how to keep language use activities and language study activities in the right proportion. On the part of the students, good discipline and essential language storage are the prerequisites to carry out the task.

Task-Based Language Teaching was introduced into China a few years ago. Ever since the English Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education and Senior High Schools was first issued in 2001, this method has been advocated throughout China and has become increasingly popular. Some teachers have applied it to their teaching and have achieved success. Their students have made great progress in using English. However, there are teachers who find it difficult to use the TBLT in their teaching, partly due to their inability to use the method, and partly due to their students' poor English foundation. Between the two types of teachers are those who do not want to take the risk to try something new for fear that their students fail in the exams.