词汇学期末复习各章知识点

Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary

1.1 The definition of a word

（1）一个最小的自由形态

（2）一个发音的集合体

（3）一个意义单位

（4）能独自影响句子的形式

因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”

1.2 vocabulary

All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over one million words.

1.3Sound and meaning

词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定

的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是

主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”

1.4 sound and form

在古英语中，口语比今天更忠实地代表书面语，但随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。有以下几点原因：

1.内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，

因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。

2.另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管

口语

发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。

Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.

3.第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同

Those scribes had made some change to the word spelling

4.到1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。同时，读音继续

如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。

In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze and standardize the spelling of words. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more difference.

5.当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来则不再

遵守英语的发音规则和拼写规则

最后得出的结论是；英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表the written form of English is, there for , an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language.

1.5 classification of words

根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源

分为本地词和借词。

1. basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基础词和非基础词

基础词的特征：

1. All national character所有的民族特征（基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词，包括自然现象，认得身体和亲属关系，动植物，动作、尺码、范围、状态，数词、代词、介词、连词）

2. Stability 稳定性（基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代

表生活需要的

普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变）

3. Productivity 多产性（基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成新

4. polysemy 多义性

5. collocability 搭配性

全民性是区别通用词和其他词的最重要特征

非基础词，没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心，它们包括下面：

1.Terminology 专业术语（包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语）

2.Jargon 行话（用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成

员在彼此之间交流）

3.Slang 俚语

4.Argot 黑话（通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人

很难理解他）

5.Dialectal words 方言

6.Archaisms 古语（是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要

出现在古诗，法律文件，宗教作品和演讲中）

7.Neologisms 新词语

2. content words and functional words 内容词和功能词

内容词：

Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 内容词显示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词,形容词，副词和数词.

功能词:

Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and article belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概

念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠

词属于这一类

3. native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词

本地词:

本地词在五世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语言的核心。因此，真正的基础词其实也是真正的本地词。和基本词储的特征相分离，和外来词相对比，本地词还有两个其他特征：

1)Neutral in style 风格中性

于本地词表示人类社会中最常见事物，他们被所有人使用，在所有地方使用，

在所有场合使用，在任何时候使用。因此，他们没有独特的特点

2)Frequent in use 频繁使用

外来词:

外来词分为四类：

1. Denizens 同化词

Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English Language. In other words they have come to conform to the English

way of pronunciation and spelling.

2. Aliens 非同化词

Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling.

These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin.

3. Translation loans 译借词(翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是

模仿其他语言的构成方式，包括words translated according to the meaning 和

Words translated according to the sound)

4. semantic loans 借义词

English has borrowed a now meaning for an existing word in the language

Chapter two the development of the English vocabulary

2.1 the Indo-European language family 印欧语系

Balto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian, Russian

Indo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany,(后三个源自Sanskrit) Eastern set

Armenian

Are the sole modern languages in the two respective families

Albanian

Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Pictish

Italic: Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian

Hellenic: Greek

Germanic: Scandinavian languages (Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish,

Swedish), German, Dutch, Flemish, English

Hittite

Tocharian find no descendants of their own

2.2 three phases of the historical development

The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language Family.

1.old English (450-1150)

?The Germanic tribes, called Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes invaded the rich lowland.

?Their language, known as Anglo- Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the

Celtic.

?Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which

are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.

Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both, which digger greatly form the language that we use today.

2.Middle English (1150-1500)

The Norman Conquest produced two great results. First, it brought to an insular nation a new and larger continental culture. Second, Norman French became the polite speech.

3.Modern English (1500 up to the present)

?Early Modern English (1500-1700)

In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge in learning ancient Greek and Roman classics, which is known as the Renaissances.

?Late Modern English (1700 up to the present)

Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power. Thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements.

2.3 General Characteristics

1. Receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity(容纳性，适应性，多样性)

2. Simplicity of inflection (简化)

As one scholar notes, Old English was characterized by “full endings”, Middle English by “leveled endings”, and Modern English by “lost endings”

3. Relatively fixed word-order

2.4 Foreign elements in the English vocabulary

Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Other foreign elements: Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese, Celtic

2.5 Growth of contemporary English vocabulary

There are three main sources of new words:

1.The rapid development of modern science and technology

2.Social, economic and political changes

3.The influence of other cultures and language

2.6 Modes of vocabulary development

Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing(创造新词，旧词变义，借用外来词)

Chapter three Morphological Structure of English Words

3.1Morphemes 词素

Morphemes: minimal meaningful units

3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs 词素形式和词素变体

?Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as

morphs.

?语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位，语素)，词素是

抽象的，它是通过词素形式morph变现出来的。词素还具有变体形式，称为allomorph(词素变体)

?All allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.

?We class morph together as allomorphs of a single morpheme.

?Many morphemes can have more than one allomorph

3．3Classfying Morphemes

?Free versus bound 自由词素和粘附词素

?Derivational versus inflectional 派生词素和曲折词素

?Lexical versus grammatical 词汇语素和语法词素

1.Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes

have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in

sentences.

Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.

Free morphemes are all roots.(这里的root是free root)

Bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes.（这里的root是bound root）

2.Derivational versus inflectional morphemes

Morphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational

morphemes.

Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationship between words and

function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.(包

括名词复数s,es,动词三单s,es,名词所有格’s,形容词比较级er,est,规则动词过去式

和过去分词ed,动词现在分词和动名词ing)

3.Content versus grammatical morphemes

Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used to derive new words, so

also known as derivational morphemes.

Grammatical morphemes encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes

such as in, and, do, have, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally

called the functional words.

3.4Identifying morphemes

3.5Morpheme and word-formation

In word-formation, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.

1.Affix

Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning

or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.

Affixes can fall into prefix and suffix.

2.Root, Stem and Base

? A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without

total loss of identity.

? A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and

derivational affixes have been removed.

? A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as i n iron or of two root

morphemes as in handcuff.

? A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional

affixes have been removed. In other words, any form to which an inflectional

affix is attached is a stem.

? A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which

affixes of any kind can be added. It can be a root or stem.

Chapter four Word Formation

构词法：affixation(加缀法) compounding(复合法) conversion（词性的转换）blending(拼缀法) Clipping （截短法）acronymy （首字母缩略法）back-formation（逆生法）sound reduplication（声音重复）

4.1 Affixation加缀法

1. prefixation 前缀

?Negative prefixes 表示否定的前缀

a-dis- in- non- un-

?Reversative or privative prefixes 逆反前缀

de- dis- un-

?Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀

mal- mis- pseudo-

?Prefixes of degree or size 表示范围和程度的前缀

arch- co- extra- hyper- macro- micro- mini-

out- over- sub- super- ser- ultra- under-

?Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示方向和态度的前缀

anti- contra- counter- pro-

?Locative prefixes 方位前缀

extra - fore- inter- intra- super- tele- trans-

?Prefixes of time and order

ex- fore- post- pre- re-

?Number prefixes

bi- di- multi- semi- tri- uni-

?Conversion prefixes 专类词缀

a-be- en-

?miscellaneous prefixes 混杂的词缀

auto- neo- pan- proto- vice-

2. suffixation 后缀法

?noun suffixes 名词词缀

1)denominal nouns 词缀加在名词后，构成名词

conc人ete 构成具体名词-eer -er -ess -ette -let –ster

abstract 构成抽象名词–dom –ery -ful -hood -ing -ism -ship

2)deverbal nouns 词缀加在动词后，构成名词

-ant -ee -ent -er -age -al -ance -ation -ence -ing

3) de-adjective nouns 词缀加载名词后，构成名词

-ity -ness

4)noun and adjective suffixes 名词和形容词后缀

A small number of suffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or

nationality names, yield words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives.

-ese -an -ist -ite

?adjective suffixes形容词后缀

1)denominal suffixes在名词后加缀，成为形容词

-ful -ish -less -like -ly -y -al -ial -ical

-esque -ic -ous -eous -ious -uous

2) deverbal suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词

-able -ible -ative -ive -sive

3) adverb suffixes在副词后加缀，成为形容词

-ward -wise

4) verb suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词

-ate -en - ify -ize -ise

4.2 compounding复合法

Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.

1.Characteristics of compounds复合词的特点

1)phonological features 语音方面的特点

In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent.

一般情况下，复合词重音都在前面。

注意区分：a’ hot house 温室 a hot ‘house 热房子

2)semantic features语义上的特点

Every compound should express single idea just as one word.

3)Grammatical features 语法特征

Compounds tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence.

Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional –s at the end.

4)Orthographical features 正确拼写特征

In most cases, compounds are written wither solid or hyphenated. Three forms:

flowerpot flower-pot flower pot formation

2.Formation of compounds

Noun compounds

Adjective compounds

Verb compounds

4.3 conversion 词性的转换

Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class, by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part speech in traditional terms. New words are new only in grammatical sense. Since words that are make do not change in morphological structure but in function, process in also known as functional shift.

1. conversion to nouns

?Deverbal 动词转换为名词https://www.360docs.net/doc/9812589183.html,uf

?De-adjectively 形容词转换为名词eg.white

?Miscallaneous conversion 其他词性的转换eg. a given

2. conversion to verbs

?Denominal 名词转换为动词eg. pocket the money put the money in the pocket

?De-adjectival 形容词转换为动词eg. wet his shoes

?Miscellaneous conversion 其他词性的转换eg.we downed a few beers.

3.conversion to adjectives

?大部分情况下都是名词转换为形容词。

?名词在转换为名词时会发生一些变化：

Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音转换为浊辅音eg.advice/-s/ advice/-z/

Initial to end stress 重音由词首变到词尾eg. ‘conduct con’duct

4.4 blending拼缀法

Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 有四种形式：

1.head + tail

eg. autocide from (automobile+suicide)

2.head+head

eg. somsat from(communication+satellite)

3.head+word

eg. medicare from(medical +care)

4.word+tail

eg. lunarnaut from(lunar+astronant)

4.5 Clipping 截短法

It is the formation of new words by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. 有四种形式：

1.Front clipping

Eg. quake (earthquake)

2.Back clipping

Eg. deli（delicatessen）

3.Front and back clipping

Eg. flu(influenza)

4.Phrase clipping

Eg. pop(popular music)

4.6Acronymy 首字母缩略法

1.initialisms (按照字母发音来读，如VOA)

2.acronyms(拼读，如AIDS)

4.7back-formation 逆生法

Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes bur inseparable parts of the words.

Eg. begger-----beg emotion----emote

babysitter----babysit Lazy ----laze

4.8sound reduplication 声音重复

As the term indicates, sound reduplication is the formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. Words made in this way are known as reduplicatives.

Eg. bow-wow(of dog) ping-pong dilly-dally tip-top

4.9commonization of proper names专有名词转化的词

https://www.360docs.net/doc/9812589183.html,s of people

https://www.360docs.net/doc/9812589183.html,s of places

https://www.360docs.net/doc/9812589183.html,s of books

4.tradenames 商品名

Chapter five Word Meaning and Componential Analysis

5.1Wording Meaning

It is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. “Form” refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. “Meaning” is what the form stands for.

1.Reference所指关系

Reference is the relationship between language and the world. Only a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, does the sign become meaningful. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite. 所指关系是语言和世界之间的联系。只有当语言符号和一样参照物之间的联系已被建立，符号才变得有意义。一个指代语言以外事物的单词的所指关系是随意的和约定俗成的。尽管参考是一种抽象，然而在背景的帮助下，它能指示特定的事物。The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can be referred to as, say, the animal,my dear, Jassy, this, she and so on

2.Concept 概念

Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, and language and so on. 概念，是在语言之外，是人类认识的结果，反映人心中的客观世界。它是普遍的针对所有相同的人不考虑文化，种族，语言等等。Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, but many people, many book.

3.Sense 语感

Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as having the same sense: Pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English. 语感表达语言内部的关系。有意义的词都有语感，但并不都有所指关系。例如，”可能“”几乎“”和“”如果“”但是“”是的，没有一个指代世界中的事物，但是都有语感。就像一个人可以用不同的语言说同一个概念，因此人可以说表达在同一语言的不同方言，由于有相同的语意：人行道在英式英语中和人行道在美式英语中有相同的语意。

5.2Motivation 理据

As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be mon-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent and reasonably explicable.

如我们所知，词的形式和意义之间的关系是约定俗

成和随意的，大多数词可以说是没有动机的。，符号和意义的关系没有法定解释。然而，英语中许多词它的意义在一定程度上能够解释。

1.Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据

In the modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.在现代英语中人可能发现一些词声音暗示了它们的意义。因为这些词是模仿自然界的声音而成。Eg, bow-wow, bang, ping-pang, miaow, ha ha, tick-tuck.

2.Morphological Motivation 形态理据

Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. 复合词和派生词是多词素词，许多词的意义是组合词素的总和。经常的，如果人知道所有词素的意思，也就是词缀或词干的意思，就能想出词的意思.eg. airmail means ” to mail by air”, reading-lamp is”the lamp for reading”

3.Semantic Motivation 语义理据

语义动机指词的概念意义所暗示的心理联系。他说明单词字面意义和和比喻意义之间的关系。

当我们说到“河口”，我们联系河的开口部分与人类或动物的口。当我们使用“山脚”，我

们就是在拿山较低的部分和人的脚作比较，他喜欢湖，壶提示有东西包含在里面，“钢笔”

和“”在“笔比剑更强大”中，暗示“写作”和“战争”。

4.Etymological Motivation 词源理据

许多词汇的意义通常直接和它们的源头相联系。换句话说，词语的历史解释了词语的意思。

例如，现在人们使用pen指代所有书写工具，尽管他的源头表示“鹅毛笔”，因为在现代钢

笔产生之前，鹅毛通常被用作书写工具。尽管现代人不再用鹅毛来书写，为了方便，名称仍

然保留。所有从专有名词大众化来的词都能根据他的起源来解释说明。一个例子已经足够说明。单词laconic意思是简洁，短。派生自lacon，一族以“说话简洁”著称的人，习惯决不比需要使用更多的词。因此laconic answer 是说“简短的回答”。

5.3Types of Meaning

1.Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义

Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of vervs and their inflectional paradigm.如同早期提过的，语法意义指词义中描述语法概念或者关系的部分，象是词汇说话中的部分（名词，动词，形容词，

副词），名词的单复数意义，动词的时态意义和它们的屈折格形式。

Lexical meaning itself embraces two components: conceptual meaning and associative.词汇意义本身包括两个内容：概念意义和联系意义。

2.Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning概念意义与联想意义

?Conceptual meaning (also known as cognitive, denotative, or designative meaning) is meaning

given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. It is constant and relatively stable.

概念意义（也被称为指示意义）是字典中给出的意义，也是词义的核心。它由于不变而相

对稳定。

?Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It

differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the

influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background,

education. 联想意义是用来补充概念意义的第二意义。他和概念意义不同因为他是开放的和

没有限定的。他容易被象是文化，经验，宗教，地区，阶级背景，教育等因素的影响。

There are four categories: connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.联想意义

包括四种类型：隐含义，文体义，感情义和组合义。

1.Connotative meaning 内涵意义

Opposite to the denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones

or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. 和指示义相比，隐含义指被概念义暗示的弦外之音或者联系。传统的被认为是隐含义. Connotative meaning is peripheral compared with conceptual meaning and connotations are relatively unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. 隐含义是不稳定的，根据文化，历史时期和个人经验相对变化。

例如，mother 指代“母亲”，经常联想起“爱“”关心“”温柔““原谅”等等。这些隐含义没有出现在字典中，但是对特定的读者和说者而言却和实际背景中词语相联系。

再有一个例子就是home，概念义是“居住场所“。当读者在实际阅读中看到这个词，它们可能产生更多的感觉。他可能提示它们”家庭，朋友，温暖，安全。爱，便利“等等。这些隐含义在众所周知的谚语中被暗示：”东边或西边，家是最好的“”没有地方象家一样“。

假设一个孩子被歧视，经常被嘲笑殴打或者在家里被责骂，那home对他而言就是地狱。

因此产生不愉快的隐含义。他可能就是“冷淡”“痛恨”“厌恶”诸如此类。甚至象是“妓女的儿子”通常有粗鲁的粗俗义的短语可能传达友谊和亲密的意义，在两个亲密的朋友之间，当它们很长时间没见。象是“你怎样，你这个婊子生的。”

2.Stylistic Meaning 文体意义

Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. 除了它们的概念义，许多词有文体特征，使它们适合不同的环境.The stylistic differentiation is especially true of synonyms. 这种文体区别特别适合于同义词.

3.Affective Meaning 情感意义

Interjections are generally expressions of emotions, such as oh, dear me, alas, hurrah.感叹词是感情词由于它们是感情的表达，象是哦，哎呀，哎呀，好啊。

Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative. 带有感情色彩的词语可以分成两类：欣赏的和蔑视的。

就像是隐含义，感情义人人不同，文化和文化不同，一代人和一代人不同，社会和社会不同。象是“革命，自由，民主。帝国主义”可能在不同的社会有不同的意义，并且有时候这些在词语中使用的有激情的暗示比指示义更为重要。另一个例子就是dog，这词在不同的社会有非常不同的感情意义。在大多数西方国家，dog是和忠诚，忠实，亲密的伙伴等一切积极的品质联系在一起，然而在中国，dog最大的好处是有用。如同史诗，他通常产生消极的联想义。如果一个人被比成了狗，说者的态度就一定是鄙视的。

4.Collocative Meaning 搭配意义

可以发现在两个词的连接物中有部分重叠，例如pretty woman和handsome woman。

尽管两者都非常正确，但是它们暗示了不同的吸引力。一个pretty女人重点是说脸长得漂亮，handsome可能不是脸漂亮而是其他方面的吸引力：苗条的身体，姿态，行为等等。

Chapter six Sense Relations

总共介绍五种：polysemy一词多义homonymy同形同音异议关系synonymy 同义关系antonymy 反义关系hyponymy 上下义关系

6.1 Polysemy 一词多义

1. two approaches to polysemy

1）Diachronic approach 历时研究方法

从历时发展的观点，歧义被认为是一个词意义结构成长和发展的过程。在词语建立的时候，它只被赋予了一个意思。这个意义是基本义。随着时间的推进和语言的发展，他获得了越来越多的意义。

这些后来的意义被称为“派生义”，由于它们都是由基本义派生而来。

2）Synchronica Approach 共时研究方法

从一时的角度看，歧义被看成同一词在一定历史时期不同意义的共存。就是说，在现代英语

中。这种方式中，词语的基本义是词义的中心，被称为“中心义”。

2. Two process of development 词义发展的两种模式

辐射发展。辐射发展是语义发展，基本义处于中心地位而次要意义由中心义辐射而出，象

是射线。其他的意义都是独立的，但是都能追溯到中心义。如果我们对face的意义进行形

象的描述，它看上去将非常象一个自行车的车轮

2）concatenation 连锁型

不像“辐射”，每一个派生义都和基本义直接联系，连接义描述了每个后来的意义都只和

前面的一个连接的过程，就像是链条。尽管最后的意义可以被追溯到起源，但是两者之间

没有直接的联系。

6.2Homonymy 同形同音异义关系

通常被定义为意义不同但是或者在声音和拼写上都相同，或者只在声音或拼写上相同的词。

1.Types of homonyms

根据类似的程度，分成三类，完全同形同音异义词，同形异义，同音异义。

2.Origins of homonyms

完全同音同型异义词和一词多义词都在拼写和发音方面完全，这产生了区别的问题。基本的区别是表现在下面的事实，也就是前者指不同的词碰巧分享了相同的形式，后者是同一个词有不同的意义。一个重要的标准是看它们的词源，也就是完全同音同型异义词来源于不同的渠道而一词多义词来自于同一渠道，不过是在发展的过程中获得了不同的意义。第二个基本注意点是语义联系。一词多义的不同意义都是和一个中心意义有或多或少的联系，象是neck。另一方面，不同的同名词与其他的无关。在词典中，一词多义词把所以的意义都列在一个中心词下面，而完全同音同型异义词作为不同的词条列出。

由于同名词在声音或拼写上是相同的，特别是同音词，它们经常被用来为预期效果制造双关

语，也就是说，幽默，讽刺或者嘲笑。

6.3Synonymy 同义关系

1.definitiaon

One of two or more words in the eglish language which have the same or very nearly the same essentail meaning.

2.Types of synonymy

绝对同义词也称为“完全同义词”，是那些在各方面意义完全相同的词，就是说，在语法

意义和词法意义两方面，包括概念义和联想义。这种类型的同义词可以在任何地方相互置换。

相对同义词也叫近义词是在指示义上相似或者接近相同，但是包括不同的意义影射或者品质的不同程度。

3.Sources of synonyms

1）Borrowing借入

2）Dialects and regional English 地域性语言和方言

3）Figurative and euphemistic use of words词的比喻性和温婉用法

4）Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 单词与习惯表达在意义上偶合

4.Discrimination of Synonyms

同义词的区别主要表现在三个方面：基本词义，隐含义和应用。

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